英文論文引言的寫(xiě)作技巧(上課用)

1、英文論文引言的寫(xiě)作技巧（上課用）1 引言的內(nèi)容與結(jié)構(gòu)布局引言的主要任務(wù)是向讀者勾勒出全文的基本內(nèi)容和輪廓。它可以包括以下五項(xiàng)內(nèi)容中的全部或其中幾項(xiàng)：1）介紹某研究領(lǐng)域的背景、意義、發(fā)展?fàn)顩r、目前的水平等；2）對(duì)相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的文獻(xiàn)進(jìn)行回顧和綜述，包括前人的研究成果，已經(jīng)解決的問(wèn)題，并適當(dāng)加以評(píng)價(jià)或比較；3）指出前人尚未解決的問(wèn)題，留下的技術(shù)空白，也可以提出新問(wèn)題、解決這些新問(wèn)題的新方法、新思路，從而引出自己研究課題的動(dòng)機(jī)與意義；4）說(shuō)明自己研究課題的目的；5）概括論文的主要內(nèi)容，或勾勒其大體輪廓。我們可以將引言的內(nèi)容分為三到四個(gè)層次來(lái)安排(如圖所示)。第一層：1) Introducing the g

2、eneral research area including its background, importance, and present level of development2) Reviewing previous research in this area第二層： Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question 第三層：Specifying the purpose of your research第四層：1) Announcing yo

3、ur major findings 2) Outlining the contents of your paper 比較簡(jiǎn)短的論文，引言也可以相對(duì)比較簡(jiǎn)短。第一層: Introducing the importance of the research area and reviewing previous Research第二層: Indicating the problem that has not been solved by previous research, raising a relevant question 第三層: Specifying the purpose of your

4、 research2 如何寫(xiě)引言的開(kāi)頭引言開(kāi)頭(即第一層)最主要目的是告訴讀者論文所涉及的研究領(lǐng)域及其意義是什么，研究要解決什么問(wèn)題，目前狀況或水平如何。也就是說(shuō)，開(kāi)頭要回答如下問(wèn)題：1、 What is the subject of the research?2、 What is the importance of this subject?3、 How is the research going at present?4、 In what way is it important, interesting, and worth studying?5、 What problem does th

5、e research solve?例Purple loosestrife (紫千曲菜) is a wetland plant which invaded North America in the early 1800s. It is well established in the United States and Canada with serious infestations in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence regions.例Forecast of the tracks of hurricanes (颶風(fēng))have improved steadily

6、 over the past three decades, owing to a combination of better observations and much improved numerical models. These improvements, along with advances in warning systems and preparedness for emergencies, have brought about a significant decline in loss of life.例Environmental indicators(環(huán)境指數(shù))attempt

7、 to accurately describe environmental conditions and make available scientifically valid information on environmental trends例Acoustic problem occur extensively in long spaces. For example, in road or rail tunnels noise pollution is a serious problem, and in underground stations poor speech intelligi

8、bility of public address systems can cause misunderstanding of vital instructions during an emergency.首先，關(guān)鍵詞往往出現(xiàn)在第一句話，回答What is the research area? 這個(gè)問(wèn)題，迅速將主題告訴讀者，避免轉(zhuǎn)彎抹角，影響信息傳遞。然后簡(jiǎn)單介紹該研究領(lǐng)域的意義。第二，引言開(kāi)頭句子的謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞或者是一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)，或者是現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)態(tài)。這是因?yàn)檫@些動(dòng)詞所描述的是某研究領(lǐng)域的現(xiàn)狀，而不是過(guò)去的情況。引言的開(kāi)頭常用句型有：句型1：研究主題+謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞be 例aFuel cell(燃料電池)

9、is a technology for the clean and efficient conversion from chemical energy in fossil fuels to electricity句型2: 研究主題+ has become a. Semiconductor based industry (基于半導(dǎo)體的工業(yè))has be come the largest industry for the USA and it has influenced every other industry and every aspect of human life.b. The batt

10、ery technology has become increasingly popular in automotive industry.c. Forest decline has become a favorite topic for environmental studies.句型3：研究主題 + be 過(guò)去分詞（被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)）a. Synthetic polymers (聚合物) are widely used in contact with biological systems in applications such as medicine, biotechnology, food p

11、rocessing and natural water environment.b. Air pollution has been extensively studied in recent years.c. The causes of glaucoma have been widely investigated recently.d. The importance of safe driving is now well established.句型4: Recently, there has been growing interest in / concern about + 研究主題 a.

12、 Recently, there has been growing concern about waste-water biosolid, the residual organic matter produced during waste water treatment.b. In the 1990s there has been growing interest in the development of electric vehicles in response to the public demand for cleaner air.句型5: Recently there have /

13、has been extensive / increasing /numerous publications / literature / reporting on + 研究領(lǐng)域a. There have been numerous publications over the last ten years on the need for nursing education to keep pace with the increase in knowledge of biological science.b. There has been increasing reporting about f

14、orest decline in North America.句型6: Researchers have become increasingly interested in +研究領(lǐng)域 或:Researchers have recently focused their attention on +研究領(lǐng)域；Researchers are recently paying more attention to + 研究領(lǐng)域a. Researchers have become more interested in environmental indicators.b. Researchers are

15、paying more attention to high pressure injection (高壓噴射).3 如何寫(xiě)文獻(xiàn)綜述文獻(xiàn)綜述是學(xué)術(shù)論文的重要組成部分，是作者對(duì)他人在某研究領(lǐng)域所做的工作和研究成果的總結(jié)與評(píng)述，包括他人有代表性的觀點(diǎn)或理論、發(fā)明發(fā)現(xiàn)、解決問(wèn)題的方法等。在援引他人的研究成果時(shí)，必須標(biāo)注出處，即這一研究成果由何人在何時(shí)何地公開(kāi)發(fā)表。3.1文獻(xiàn)出處的標(biāo)注引用文獻(xiàn)時(shí)，不同的學(xué)科或領(lǐng)域可能采用各自約定俗成的體系或格式。在寫(xiě)論文時(shí)，應(yīng)該了解自己學(xué)科采用的固定格式。目前最常見(jiàn)的體系有兩種，一種是作者+出版年體系，另一種是順序編碼體系。下面對(duì)這兩種體系分別加以介紹。第一種體系的主要

16、框架模式如下：模式1：作者(年代)十謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞主動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)+研究?jī)?nèi)容成果a. Hanson et al. (1976) noted that oak mortality and decline were associated with drought and insects throughout a multi-state region of the mid-west.b. McCarthy (1995) documented 50% hickory mortality, associated with insects, in a ten year study of forest dynamics

17、in two hardwood areas in a southeastern Ohio forest.c. Also, Fay (1991) found cooperative group projects integrated into science class to be successful experiences for students.模式2：研究?jī)?nèi)容成果+謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)+(作者年代)a. Success at this Science Day was found to be linked to parental support (Czemiak 1996).b. Throu

18、ghout the eastern United States, large scale compositional changes have been observed in forests dominated by oak and hickory (Christensen 1997, Lorimer 1984, McCarthy et al. 1987, Pallardy et al. 1988).模式3：It has been十謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)+by作者(年代)+that從句 或：It has been+謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)+that從句(作者年代)；研究?jī)?nèi)容成果+謂語(yǔ)動(dòng)詞被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài)+by作者

19、(年代)a. It was found by Czemiak (1996) that success at this Science Day was linked to parental support. 或 It was found that success at this Science Day was linked to parental support (Czemiak 1996).b. The condition of eastern hardwood species and ecosystems of the United States has been summarized by

20、 Weiss and Rizzo (1987) and Millers et al. (1989).如果引用的文獻(xiàn)有兩個(gè)以上的作者，只標(biāo)明第一作者，后面用拉丁文et al表示，意思是“等人”、“其他人”。如“Hanson et al”就是如此。如果在綜述中涉及幾個(gè)項(xiàng)目或文獻(xiàn)時(shí)，則將這些文獻(xiàn)并列標(biāo)注，必要時(shí)用逗號(hào)隔開(kāi)。如 “Christensen 1997， Lorimerl984，McCarthy et al1987，Pallardy et al1988)” 以及 “Weiss and Rizzo(1987)and Millers et al(1989)”。標(biāo)注參考文獻(xiàn)另一種常見(jiàn)體系是按文獻(xiàn)出

21、現(xiàn)的先后順序編號(hào)，置于方括號(hào)中，標(biāo)在指引部分的右上角。被引用的作者、文獻(xiàn)名、出版時(shí)間、地點(diǎn)等列入論文后面的參考文獻(xiàn)中。其順序要與正文中標(biāo)注的順序一致。例Forecasts of the tracks of hurricanes have improved steadily over the past three decades 1, owing to a combination of better observations and much-improved numerical models. In contrast to the improvements in track forecasts

22、, there has been comparatively little advance in predictions of intensity 1, in spite of the sophisticated numerical models. The best intensity forecasts today are statistically based2. Most of the research literature on hurricane intensity focuses on the pre-storm sea surface temperature and certai

23、n properties of the atmospheric environment3 But it is well known that hurricanes alter the surface temperature of the ocean over which they pass4 and that a mere 2.5 K decrease in ocean surface temperature near the core of the storm would be enough to shut down energy production entirely51. Simulat

24、ions with coupled atmosphere-ocean models5-7 confirm that interaction with the ocean is a strong negative feedback on storm intensity文中標(biāo)注的編號(hào)代表參考文獻(xiàn)出現(xiàn)的順序。"l"在文中出現(xiàn)兩次，代表這兩處所陳述的內(nèi)容或觀點(diǎn)出自同一篇文獻(xiàn)，即正文后面參考文獻(xiàn)中的第1條?！?7”代表此處陳述的內(nèi)容或觀點(diǎn)涉及到三篇文獻(xiàn)，即參考文獻(xiàn)中第57條。行文中的編號(hào)也可以不放在方括號(hào)里。如：例The sound attenuation along the len

25、gth, a significant index in long spaces, has been intensively studied. Based on various assumptions and using various methods, a number of formulae have been given1-5. Another important index, reverberation time, has been seen to be different from that of the diffuse field6.3.2 文獻(xiàn)綜述中的動(dòng)詞運(yùn)用技巧(1)兩類動(dòng)詞我們

26、可以發(fā)現(xiàn)，文獻(xiàn)綜述中常用state， note，observe，discuss，establish，find，present等動(dòng)詞。這些動(dòng)詞有兩種特性，一種是描述性動(dòng)詞，客觀地向讀者介紹他人的工作；另一種是評(píng)價(jià)性動(dòng)詞，在一定程度上代表了作者對(duì)他人的工作的理解、解釋或態(tài)度。文獻(xiàn)綜述中常用的描述性動(dòng)詞有：describe，discuss，explain，examine，present，state等。常見(jiàn)的評(píng)價(jià)性動(dòng)詞有：affirm，allege，argue，assume，claim，imply，maintain，presume，reveal，suggest等。(2)動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)文獻(xiàn)綜述中最常見(jiàn)的時(shí)態(tài)是

27、一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)、一般過(guò)去時(shí)和現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)三種時(shí)態(tài)。使用不同的動(dòng)詞時(shí)態(tài)會(huì)給句子的意義帶來(lái)變化，基本原則如下：原則1：當(dāng)作者引用某人過(guò)去某個(gè)時(shí)間所做過(guò)的某一項(xiàng)具體的研究時(shí)，用一般過(guò)去時(shí)。如：例a. Hanson et al. (1976) noted that oak mortality and decline were associated with drought and insects throughout a multi-state region of the mid-west. McCarthy (1995) documented 50% hickory mortality, associat

28、ed with insects, in a ten year study of forest dynamics in two hardwood areas in a southeastern Ohio forest.b. It was found by Czerniak (1996) that success at this Science Day was linked to parental support. 或 It was found that success at this Science Day was linked to parental support (Czemiak 1996

29、).原則2：在概括或總結(jié)某一研究領(lǐng)域里所做過(guò)的一些研究時(shí)，用現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)，如：例a. The condition of eastern hardwood species and ecosystems of the United States has been summarized by Weiss and Rizzo (1987) and Millers et al. (1989). Since then, numerous studies have been completed and many regions have established long-term forest surveys

30、 to better monitor changes occurring in the eastern forest (Loucks 1992).b. The sound attenuation along the length, a significant index in long spaces, has been intensively studied. Based on various assumptions and using various methods, a number of formulae have been given 1-5. Another important in

31、dex, reverberation time, has been seen to be different from that of the diffuse field 6.原則3：在談及目前的知識(shí)水平、技術(shù)水平或存在的問(wèn)題時(shí)，用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)態(tài)。例Acoustic problems occur extensively in long spaces. For example, in road or rail tunnels noise pollution is a serious problem, and in underground stations poor speech intelligi

32、bility of public address systems can cause loss of important travel information and misunderstanding of vital instructions during an emergency. An outstanding feature of long spaces is that classical room acoustic theory is not applicable since the assumption of a diffuse field does not hold with th

33、e extreme dimension condition. Consequently, works required for an understanding of the behavior of sound in long spaces and for an acoustic prediction which takes into account the relevant characteristics.(3)銜接手段如果綜述中多處需要引用同一個(gè)作者或同一篇文章，那么，需要用一些連接手段使上下文銜接，讓意思流暢、連貫，并起到提醒讀者的作用。例a. The author goes on to

34、 say thatb. The article further states thatc. The author also states / argues / believes that d. The author concludes that 4 如何寫(xiě)研究動(dòng)機(jī)與目的在介紹了他人在某領(lǐng)域的工作和成果之后，下一步便介紹作者自己的研究動(dòng)機(jī)、目的與內(nèi)容。介紹研究動(dòng)機(jī)可以從兩個(gè)角度人手，一是指出前人尚未解決的問(wèn)題或知識(shí)的空白，二是說(shuō)明解決這一問(wèn)題，或填補(bǔ)知識(shí)空白的重要意義。主要句型有：句型1：用表示否定意義的詞例little，few，no或none of+名詞作主語(yǔ)。如：例aLittle infor

35、mationattentionworkresearchbFew studiesinvestigationsresearchersattemptscNo studiesdatacalculationsdNoneofthese studiesfindingscalculations下面舉幾個(gè)表示否定意義的例子。a. Unfortunately, few educational opportunities exit to teach farmers and rural homeowners effective water supply management.b. There have been fe

36、w specific reports in the literature of oak and hickory decline.c. There is, however, little qualitative information regarding purple loosestrife vegetative reproduction.d. However, there exists little research on science fair projects.句型2:里表示對(duì)照的句型。如:例a. The research has tended to focus on, rather t

37、han onb. These studies have emphasized, as opposed toc. Although considerable research has been devoted to, rather less attention has been paid tod. Although there is much hope that three-dimensional coupled models will lead to better understanding of the factors that control hurricane intensity and

38、 to increased reliability of hurricane intensity forecasts, the present generation of models may not have enough horizontal resolution to capture the full intensity of extreme storms.句型3：提出問(wèn)題或假設(shè)。如：例a. However, it remains unclear whetherb. It would thus be of interest to learn howc. If these results

39、could be confirmed, they would provide strong evidence for d. These findings suggest that this treatment might not be so effective when applied toe. It would seem, therefore, that further investigations are needed in order to指出或暗示了知識(shí)領(lǐng)域里的空白，或提出了問(wèn)題或假設(shè)之后，下一步理所當(dāng)然應(yīng)該告訴讀者本研究的目的和內(nèi)容，要解決哪些問(wèn)題，以填補(bǔ)上述空白，或者證明所提出的假

40、設(shè)。此部分常見(jiàn)的句型請(qǐng)參見(jiàn)如何寫(xiě)摘要中的目的部分。這里只略舉幾例。例a. The aim of the present paper is to give b. This paper reports on the results obtainedc. In this paper we give preliminary results ford. The main purpose of the experiment reported here was toe. This study was designed to evaluatef. The present work extends the us

41、e of the last model byg. We now report the interaction betweenh. The primary focus of this paper is oniThe aim of this investigation was to testjItisthe purposeof the present paper to provide從暗示知識(shí)的空白到本研究的目的與內(nèi)容一般需要用一些過(guò)渡詞，以提示一下讀者。如上面這些例句中，用了this paper，here，thepresentwork，now，this investigation，the pre

42、sent paper等詞或詞組。為了引起讀者的注意，這些詞或詞組一般放在句首。例The fate of these sections is not clear. In this study we asked the questions: Do shoot sections remain viable and, if so, are they capable of further growth? We also examined the effect of habitat history and section length on survivorship.如果一項(xiàng)研究、一篇論文不止一個(gè)目的，應(yīng)該按目的的主次排列順序，并用連接詞或詞組。例The present work extends the use of the la