大學思辨英語精讀Unit4OrganizationandInstitution參考答案.doc

1、Unit 4Organization and InstitutionText APreparatory Work(1)a. Institutionalization:refers to the process of embedding some conception (for example a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be use

2、d to refer to committing a particular individual or group to an institution, such as a mental or welfare institution.b. Solitary confinement: is a form of imprisonment in which an inmate is isolated from any human contact, often with the exception of members of prison staff. It is mostly employed as

3、 a form of punishment beyond incarceration for a prisoner, usually for violations of prison regulations. However, it is also used as an additional measure of protection for vulnerable inmates. In the case prisoners at high risk of suicide, it can be used to prevent access to items that could allow t

4、he prisoner to self-harm.c. Parole:is the provisional release of a prisoner who agrees to certain conditions prior to the completion of the maximum sentence period. A specific type of parole is medical parole or compassionate release which is the release of prisoners on medical or humanitarian groun

5、ds. Conditions of parole often include things such as obeying the law, refraining from drug and alcohol use, avoiding contact with the parolees victims, obtaining employment, and maintaining required contacts with a parole officer.d. Rehabilitation:is the re-integration into society of a convicted p

6、erson and the main objective of modern penal policy, to counter habitual offending, also known as criminal recidivism.Alternatives to imprisonment also exist, such as community service, probation orders, and others entailing guidance and aftercare towards the offender.(2)Main publications: Influenci

7、ng Attitudes and Changing Behavior (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley., 1977, Psychology (3rd Edition), Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1999, Psychology And Life, 17/e, Allyn & Bacon Publishing, 2005, The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil, Random House, New York

8、, 2007Main research interests: social psychology, particularly prison study, social intensity syndrome study (related to discharged soldiers). (3)Name of experimentDescription of the experimentRelation of the experiment with the textExperiment on obedienceA series of social psychology experiments co

9、nducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. They measured the willingness of study participants, men from a diverse range of occupations with varying levels of education, to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts conflicting with their personal conscience; the expe

10、riment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress.Closely related with the text since they are all about the effect of assigned roles. Small-world experiment (six degrees of separation)T

11、he small-world experiment comprised several experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram and other researchers examining the average path length for social networks of people in the United States. The research was groundbreaking in that it suggested that human society is a small-world-type network chara

12、cterized by short path-lengths. The experiments are often associated with the phrase “six degrees of separation”, although Milgram did not use this term himself.Not closely related with the text since the experiment is about social networking between individuals in the United States.Critical Reading

13、I. Understanding the text1. PartPara(s)Main ideaI. Anecdote and introduction1-2A case showing the necessity for prison reformII. Body3-10 (the experiment)The experiment of a mock prison with guards and prisoners were carried out and had to end earlier because of the frightening effect.III. Findings1

14、1-13 (implication)Individual behavior is largely under the control of social forces and environmental contingencies rather than personality traits, character, willpower, or other empirically un-validated constructs.IV. Conclusion14 (effects of prison)The prison situation is guaranteed to generate se

15、vere pathological reactions in both guards and prisoners as to debase their humanity, and make it difficult for them to be part of a society outside of their prison. 2. (1) Zimbardo uses the specific example of a prisoners situation to plead for prison reform and to justify the experiment he conduct

16、ed about the bad effect of prison.(2) They conduct an experiment about the effects of prison on both guards and prisoners. (3) They want to understand what it means psychologically to be a prisoner or a prison guard. (4) The 24 participants are selected randomly from volunteer students in Palo Alto

17、city and they were randomly assigned roles of guards and prisoners in a simulated prison. (5) At Stanford University in 1971.(6) The experiment has to be ended earlier than planned.(7) Because the effects of prison (abusing and being abused)on those being experimented are frightening. (8) The result

18、s show that people underestimate the power and pervasiveness of situational controls over behavior. (9) Individual behavior is largely under the control of social forces and environmental contingencies rather than personality traits, character, willpower, etc. Many people, perhaps the majority, can

19、be made to do almost anything when put into psychologically compelling situations regardless of their morals, ethics, values, attitudes, beliefs, or personal convictions. II. Evaluation and exploration(1)Hypothesis: the change of environment (including changed roles) affects ones behavior (students

20、are put into a mock prison and assigned opposite roles which are all different from their normal environment and role of being a student or citizen)Cause: prison and assigned new roles (changed environment)Effect: rational people with humanity were turned to abusers and victimsIndependent variable:t

21、he participants as human beings (the same human beings)(Stimulus: change of environment/roles)Dependent variable: behaviorThe experiment on the power and influence of roles assigned to ordinary individualsis basically valid and convincing, and similar experiments also prove that most peoples behavio

22、r are influenced by the social environment, particularly the new roles they are assigned. Unfortunately, the experiment cannot be confirmed due to the ethical concern (the harm caused by the experiment on the participants). And also, since the participants of a social experiment are humans, the resu

23、lt might not be exactly the same (unlike the natural science experiment which can be repeated with precision and same result). (2)Similarities: the two experiments are all about the effect of assigned roles and social expectations on the behavior of the human beings. Differences: Zimbardos experimen

24、t focuses on the gradual change of behavior on those who are assigned new roles (prison effect) while Stanleys experiment focuses on authoritys influence on individuals in normal circumstances (authority effect). (3)Power and its execution are closely related with the role assigned to the power-hold

25、er. The more important role he/she is given, the more likely he/she abuses it if there are no checks and balances from other institutions. It is very important to fight against corruption(in campaigns or through legal means), but its more important to set up mechanism to balance the role given to po

26、wer-holders. (4)Zimbardos statement or conclusion is based on his only experiment about humans and their environment and cannot be repeated due to ethical reasons. It is reasonable to argue that most people are influencedby the (change of) environment and adapt to it quickly, which means personal “f

27、reedom” is conditioned. However, there are exceptions, and this statement cannot explain the behavior of those heroes who stick to their principles under any circumstances and would rather die than surrender to enemy or power. (5)These exceptional examples are mostly heroes in extreme circumstances

28、such as war or condition of life and death (Wen Tianxiang, Liu Hulan, John Brown etc.). They have to choose between life and death very quickly and sometimes they act from instinct. There are other factors that result in these exceptional cases they all have very strong characters which have been fo

29、stered in hardship; they also have a very strong faith and are ready to die for the cause they pursue.(6) Besides the reason Zimbardo mentions (psychological factor of self-image for the donors), there are at least two more reasons. One is religious reason most people in the West are Christians who

30、believe in the teachings of Jesus Christ and feel a duty to help the poor (in the form of material, money, or time). The other is related to the affluence of the West where the majority of people become well-off enough to give away a fraction of their wealth or money to maintain social stability. (T

31、herere also other reasons such as tax deduction in some countries to encourage donation.)(7)Simply put, the merit of “group think” is that it can mobilize a uniformed collective force to realize some goal that individuals alone cannot hope to accomplish (through teamwork and national solidarity). Th

32、e demerit of “group think” is that the group leaders view might be one-sided and flawed, and the wrong decisionor policy based on it could easily lead to mistakes or even disaster. Other demerits: this situation may easily result in the circumstance of strong leader/dictator vs. obedient/populist fo

33、llowers; and in many cases the “truth” is not necessary in the hands of the majority. (8)Clinical trials are experiments done in clinical research. Such prospective biomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behaviora

34、l interventions, including new treatmentsand known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy. They are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy i

35、s sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is safe or effective, only that the trial may be conducted.Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or pat

36、ients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. The key point here is: All participants are volunteers who choose clinical trial when other means fail. Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animalsranges from the tens of mill

37、ions to more than 100 million used in animal experiment annually. In the EU, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the US then the total number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. Most animals are euthanized after being

38、 used in an experiment.Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 20th century relied on the use of animals in some way. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S. National Academy of Science

39、s has argued that animal research cannot be replaced by even sophisticated computer models, which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the environment. Animal rights, and some animal welfare, organizationsquestion the ne

40、ed for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is cruel and poorly regulated, that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models that cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals h

41、ave the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in experimentation.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1)C&F(2)B&C (3)E&F (4)E&F (5)A&D (6)C&E (7)A&F(8)B&F (9)D&E(10)B&C2.（1）拼圖、勾畫（2）構建（名詞）（3）建造（動詞）（4）建筑物（5）檔案（6）（一列）縱隊（7）（用銼刀）銼（9）提出、提交（10）呼吁、要求（11）上訴（12）情緒感染、情感訴求（13）吸引力（14）從懸吊下來（15）停職（16）暫停（1

42、7）懸?。?8）吸引（19）雇傭（20）交戰(zhàn)、接觸（21）忙于（22）面對、觸及3.(1)die away(2)need(3)call for(4)overwhelmed(5)assessed(6)result in(7)function(8)filed(9)prayed(10)predicting4.(1)served as(2)end up with(3)differentiate between(4)dissolved into(5)preventfrom(6) trade for(7) attribute to(8) inflicted on(9) derived from(10) p

43、ass outII. Sentences and discourse1. (1) This powerful appeal for prison reform was sent to me in a secret letter from a prisoner. He cannot reveal his name because of still being rehabilitated. (2) The guards were informed of the potential seriousness and danger of the situation as well as their ow

44、n weaknesses (during the experiment). (3) In less than a week, the experience of imprisonment dissolved all good things that theyve learned in a lifetime, including human values and self-concepts while the ugliest and most basic sickside of human nature came into the surface. (4) Individual behavior

45、 is largely influenced and dominated by social forces and environmental factors instead of by personality traits, character, willpower, or other components that cannot be proved by empirical evidences. (5) Thus we created a false belief in (personal) freedom by emphasizing individuals internal control (of themselves and of the environment) that actually does not exists. (6) However, since most participants in thes