《化學(xué)工程與工藝專業(yè)英語(yǔ)》課文專業(yè)翻譯全本書教學(xué)內(nèi)容

1、Good is good, but better carries it.精益求精，善益求善。化學(xué)工程與工藝專業(yè)英語(yǔ)課文專業(yè)翻譯全本書-Unit1ChemicalIndustry化學(xué)工業(yè)Beforereadingthetextbelow,trytoanswerfollowingquestion:Whendidthemodernchemicalindustrystart?Canyougiveadefinitionforthechemicalindustry?Whatarethecontributionwhichthechemicalindustryhasmadetomeetandsatisfyou

2、rneeds?Isthechemicalindustrycapital-orlabor-intensive?Why?1.OriginsoftheChemicalIndustryAlthoughtheuseofchemicalsdatesbacktotheancientcivilizations,theevolutionofwhatweknowasthemodernchemicalindustrystartedmuchmorerecently.ItmaybeconsideredtohavebegunduringtheIndustrialRevolution,about1800,anddevelo

3、pedtoprovidechemicalsroeusebyotherindustries.Examplesarealkaliforsoapmaking,bleachingpowderforcotton,andsilicaandsodiumcarbonateforglassmaking.Itwillbenotedthattheseareallinorganicchemicals.Theorganicchemicalsindustrystartedinthe1860swiththeexploitationofWilliamHenryPerkinsdiscoveryifthefirstsynthet

4、icdyestuffmauve.AtthestartofthetwentiethcenturytheemphasisonresearchontheappliedaspectsofchemistryinGermanyhadpaidoffhandsomely,andby1914hadresultedintheGermanchemicalindustryhaving75%oftheworldmarketinchemicals.Thiswasbasedonthediscoveryofnewdyestuffsplusthedevelopmentofboththecontactprocessforsulp

5、huricacidandtheHaberprocessforammonia.Thelaterrequiredamajortechnologicalbreakthroughthatofbeingabletocarryoutchemicalreactionsunderconditionsofveryhighpressureforthefirsttime.TheexperiencegainedwiththiswastostandGermanyingoodstead,particularlywiththerapidlyincreaseddemandfornitrogen-basedcompounds(

6、ammoniumsaltsforfertilizersandnitricacidforexplosivesmanufacture)withtheoutbreakofworldwarin1914.Thisinitiatedprofoundchangeswhichcontinuedduringtheinter-waryears(1918-1939).化學(xué)工業(yè)的起源盡管化學(xué)品的使用可以追溯到古代文明時(shí)代，我們所謂的現(xiàn)代化學(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展卻是非常近代（才開始的）?？梢哉J(rèn)為它起源于工業(yè)革命其間，大約在1800年，并發(fā)展成為為其它工業(yè)部門提供化學(xué)原料的產(chǎn)業(yè)。比如制肥皂所用的堿，棉布生產(chǎn)所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造業(yè)

7、所用的硅及Na2CO3.我們會(huì)注意到所有這些都是無(wú)機(jī)物。有機(jī)化學(xué)工業(yè)的開始是在十九世紀(jì)六十年代以WilliamHenryPerkin發(fā)現(xiàn)第一種合成染料苯胺紫并加以開發(fā)利用為標(biāo)志的。20世紀(jì)初，德國(guó)花費(fèi)大量資金用于實(shí)用化學(xué)方面的重點(diǎn)研究，到1914年，德國(guó)的化學(xué)工業(yè)在世界化學(xué)產(chǎn)品市場(chǎng)上占有75%的份額。這要?dú)w因于新染料的發(fā)現(xiàn)以及硫酸的接觸法生產(chǎn)和氨的哈伯生產(chǎn)工藝的發(fā)展。而后者需要較大的技術(shù)突破使得化學(xué)反應(yīng)第一次可以在非常高的壓力條件下進(jìn)行。這方面所取得的成績(jī)對(duì)德國(guó)很有幫助。特別是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆發(fā)，對(duì)以氮為基礎(chǔ)的化合物的需求飛速增長(zhǎng)。這種深刻的改變一直持續(xù)到戰(zhàn)后（1918-193

8、9）。datebaketo/from:回溯到dated:過時(shí)的，陳舊的standsb.ingoodstead:對(duì)。很有幫助Since1940thechemicalindustryhasgrownataremarkablerate,althoughthishasslowedsignificantlyinrecentyears.Thelionsshareofthisgrowthhasbeenintheorganicchemicalssectorduetothedevelopmentandgrowthofthepetrochemicalsareasince1950s.Theexplosivesgro

9、wthinpetrochemicalsinthe1960sand1970swaslargelyduetotheenormousincreaseindemandforsyntheticpolymerssuchaspolyethylene,polypropylene,nylon,polyestersandepoxyresins.1940年以來(lái)，化學(xué)工業(yè)一直以引人注目的速度飛速發(fā)展。盡管這種發(fā)展的速度近年來(lái)已大大減慢?；瘜W(xué)工業(yè)的發(fā)展由于1950年以來(lái)石油化學(xué)領(lǐng)域的研究和開發(fā)大部分在有機(jī)化學(xué)方面取得。石油化工在60年代和70年代的迅猛發(fā)展主要是由于人們對(duì)于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龍、聚脂和環(huán)氧樹

10、脂的需求巨大增加。Thechemicalindustrytodayisaverydiversesectorofmanufacturingindustry,withinwhichitplaysacentralrole.Itmakesthousandsofdifferentchemicalswhichthegeneralpubliconlyusuallyencounterasendorconsumerproducts.Theseproductsarepurchasedbecausetheyhavetherequiredpropertieswhichmakethemsuitableforsomepa

11、rticularapplication,e.g.anon-stickcoatingforpansoraweedkiller.Thuschemicalsareultimatelysoldfortheeffectsthattheyproduce.今天的化學(xué)工業(yè)已經(jīng)是制造業(yè)中有著許多分支的部門，并且在制造業(yè)中起著核心的作用。它生產(chǎn)了數(shù)千種不同的化學(xué)產(chǎn)品，而人們通常只接觸到終端產(chǎn)品或消費(fèi)品。這些產(chǎn)品被購(gòu)買是因?yàn)樗麄兙哂心承┬再|(zhì)適合（人們）的一些特別的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂層或一種殺蟲劑。這些化學(xué)產(chǎn)品歸根到底是由于它們能產(chǎn)生的作用而被購(gòu)買的。2.DefinitionoftheChemicalIndu

12、stryAttheturnofthecenturytherewouldhavebeenlittledifficultyindefiningwhatconstitutedthechemicalindustrysinceonlyaverylimitedrangeofproductswasmanufacturedandthesewereclearlychemicals,e.g.,alkali,sulphuricacid.Atpresent,however,manyintermediatestoproductsproduced,fromrawmaterialslikecrudeoilthrough(i

13、nsomecases)manyintermediatestoproductswhichmaybeuseddirectlyasconsumergoods,orreadilyconvertedintothem.Thedifficultyconesindecidingatwhichpointinthissequencetheparticularoperationceasestobepartofthechemicalindustryssphereofactivities.Toconsideraspecificexampletoillustratethisdilemma,emulsionpaintsma

14、ycontainpoly(vinylchloride)/poly(vinylacetate).Clearly,synthesisofvinylchloride(oracetate)anditspolymerizationarechemicalactivities.However,ifformulationandmixingofthepaint,includingthepolymer,iscarriedoutbyabranchofthemultinationalchemicalcompanywhichmanufacturedtheingredients,isthisstillpartofthec

15、hemicalindustryofdoesitmowbelonginthedecoratingindustry?化學(xué)工業(yè)的定義在本世紀(jì)初，要定義什么是化學(xué)工業(yè)是不太困難的，因?yàn)槟菚r(shí)所生產(chǎn)的化學(xué)品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化學(xué)品，例如，燒堿，硫酸。然而現(xiàn)在有數(shù)千種化學(xué)產(chǎn)品被生產(chǎn)，從一些原料物質(zhì)像用于制備許多的半成品的石油，到可以直接作為消費(fèi)品或很容易轉(zhuǎn)化為消費(fèi)品的商品。困難在于如何決定在一些特殊的生產(chǎn)過程中哪一個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)不再屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動(dòng)范疇。舉一個(gè)特殊的例子來(lái)描述一下這種困境。乳劑漆含有聚氯乙烯/聚醋酸乙烯。顯然，氯乙烯（或醋酸乙烯）的合成以及聚合是化學(xué)活動(dòng)。然而，如果這種漆，包括高聚物，它

16、的配制和混合是由一家制造配料的跨國(guó)化學(xué)公司完成的話，那它仍然是屬于化學(xué)工業(yè)呢還是應(yīng)當(dāng)歸屬于裝飾工業(yè)中去呢？Itisthereforeapparentthat,becauseofitsdiversityofoperationsandcloselinksinmanyareaswithotherindustries,thereisnosimpledefinitionofthechemicalindustry.Insteadeachofficialbodywhichcollectsandpublishesstatisticsonmanufacturingindustrywillhaveitsdefin

17、itionastowhichoperationsareclassifiedasthechemicalindustry.Itisimportanttobearthisinmindwhencomparingstatisticalinformationwhichisderivedfromseveralsources.因此，很明顯，由于化學(xué)工業(yè)經(jīng)營(yíng)的種類很多并在很多領(lǐng)域與其它工業(yè)有密切的聯(lián)系，所以不能對(duì)它下一個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單的定義。相反的每一個(gè)收集和出版制造工業(yè)統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù)的官方機(jī)構(gòu)都會(huì)對(duì)如何屆定哪一類操作為化學(xué)工業(yè)有自己的定義。當(dāng)比較來(lái)自不同途徑的統(tǒng)計(jì)資料時(shí)，記住這點(diǎn)是很重要的。3.TheNeedforChemi

18、calIndustryThechemicalindustryisconcernedwithconvertingrawmaterials,suchascrudeoil,firstlyintochemicalintermediatesandthenintoatremendousvarietyofotherchemicals.Thesearethenusedtoproduceconsumerproducts,whichmakeourlivesmorecomfortableor,insomecasessuchaspharmaceuticalproduces,helptomaintainourwell-

19、beingorevenlifeitself.Ateachstageoftheseoperationsvalueisaddedtotheproduceandprovidedthisaddedexceedstherawmaterialplusprocessingcoststhenaprofitwillbemadeontheoperation.Itistheaimofchemicalindustrytoachievethis.對(duì)化學(xué)工業(yè)的需要化學(xué)工業(yè)涉及到原材料的轉(zhuǎn)化，如石油首先轉(zhuǎn)化為化學(xué)中間體，然后轉(zhuǎn)化為數(shù)量眾多的其它化學(xué)產(chǎn)品。這些產(chǎn)品再被用來(lái)生產(chǎn)消費(fèi)品，這些消費(fèi)品可以使我們的生活更為舒適或者作藥

20、物維持人類的健康或生命。在生產(chǎn)過程的每一個(gè)階段，都有價(jià)值加到產(chǎn)品上面，只要這些附加的價(jià)值超過原材料和加工成本之和，這個(gè)加工就產(chǎn)生了利潤(rùn)。而這正是化學(xué)工業(yè)要達(dá)到的目的。Itmayseemstrangeintextbookthisonetoposethequestion“doweneedachemicalindustry?”Howevertryingtoanswerthisquestionwillprovide()anindicationoftherangeofthechemicalindustrysactivities,()itsinfluenceonourlivesineverydayterm

21、s,and()howgreatissocietysneedforachemicalindustry.Ourapproachinansweringthequestionwillbetoconsidertheindustryscontributiontomeetingandsatisfyingourmajorneeds.Whatarethese?Clearlyfood(anddrink)andhealthareparamount.Otherwhichweshallconsiderintheirturnareclothingand(briefly)shelter,leisureandtranspor

22、t.在這樣的一本教科書中提出：“我們需要化學(xué)工業(yè)嗎？”這樣一個(gè)問題是不是有點(diǎn)奇怪呢？然而，先回答下面幾個(gè)問題將給我們提供一些信息：（1）化學(xué)工業(yè)的活動(dòng)范圍，（2）化學(xué)工業(yè)對(duì)我們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹挠绊?，?）社會(huì)對(duì)化學(xué)工業(yè)的需求有多大。在回答這些問題的時(shí)候我們的思路將要考慮化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足和改善我們的主要需求方面所做的貢獻(xiàn)。是些什么需求呢？很顯然，食物和健康是放在第一位的。其它我們要考慮的按順序是衣物、住所、休閑和旅行。(1)Food.Thechemicalindustrymakesamajorcontributiontofoodproductioninatleastthreeways.Firstly,b

23、ymakingavailablelargequantitiesofartificialfertilizerswhichareusedtoreplacetheelements(mainlynitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium)whichareremovedasnutrientsbythegrowingcropsduringmodernintensivefarming.Secondly,bymanufacturingcropprotectionchemicals,i.e.,pesticides,whichmarkedlyreducetheproportionofthecr

24、opsconsumedbypests.Thirdly,byproducingveterinaryproductswhichprotectlivestockfromdiseaseorcuretheirinfections.(1)食物?；瘜W(xué)工業(yè)對(duì)糧食生產(chǎn)所做的巨大貢獻(xiàn)至少有三個(gè)方面。第一，提供大量可以獲得的肥料以補(bǔ)充由于密集耕作被農(nóng)作物生長(zhǎng)時(shí)所帶走的營(yíng)養(yǎng)成分。（主要是氮、磷和鉀）。第二，生產(chǎn)農(nóng)作物保護(hù)產(chǎn)品，如殺蟲劑，它可以顯著減少害蟲所消耗的糧食數(shù)量。第三，生產(chǎn)獸藥保護(hù)家禽免遭疾病或其它感染的侵害。(2)Health.Weareallawareofthemajorcontributionwhich

25、thepharmaceuticalsectoroftheindustryhasmadetohelpkeepusallhealthy,e.g.bycuringbacterialinfectionswithantibiotics,andevenextendinglifeitself,e.g.blockerstolowerbloodpressure.（2）健康。我們都很了解化學(xué)工業(yè)中制藥這一塊在維護(hù)我們的身體健康甚至延長(zhǎng)壽命方面所做出的巨大貢獻(xiàn)，例如，用抗生素治療細(xì)菌感染，用-抗血栓降低血壓。(3)Clothing.Theimprovementinpropertiesofmodernsyntheti

26、cfibersoverthetraditionalclothingmaterials(e.g.cottonandwool)hasbeenquiteremarkable.Thusshirts,dressesandsuitsmadefrompolyesterslikeTeryleneandpolyamideslikeNylonarecrease-resistant,machine-washable,anddrip-dryornon-iron.Theyarealsocheaperthannaturalmaterials.衣物。在傳統(tǒng)的衣服面料上，現(xiàn)代合成纖維性質(zhì)的改善也是非常顯著的。用聚脂如滌綸或聚

27、酰胺如尼龍所制作的T恤、上衣、襯衫抗皺、可機(jī)洗，曬干自挺或免燙，也比天然面料便宜。Paralleldevelopmentsinthediscoveryofmodernsyntheticdyesandthetechnologyto“bond”themtothefiberhasresultedinatremendousincreaseinthevarietyofcolorsavailabletothefashiondesigner.Indeedtheynowspanalmosteverycolorandhueofthevisiblespectrum.Indeedifasuitableshadeis

28、notavailable,structuralmodificationofanexistingdyetoachievethiscanreadilybecarriedout,providedthereisasatisfactorymarketfortheproduct.與此同時(shí)，現(xiàn)代合成染料開發(fā)和染色技術(shù)的改善使得時(shí)裝設(shè)計(jì)師們有大量的色彩可以利用。的確他們幾乎利用了可見光譜中所有的色調(diào)和色素。事實(shí)上如果某種顏色沒有現(xiàn)成的，只要這種產(chǎn)品確有市場(chǎng)，就可以很容易地通過對(duì)現(xiàn)有的色彩進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)調(diào)整而獲得。Othermajoradvancesinthisspherehavebeenincolor-fastne

29、ss,i.e.,resistancetothedyebeingwashedoutwhenthegarmentiscleaned.這一領(lǐng)域中另一些重要進(jìn)展是不褪色，即在洗滌衣物時(shí)染料不會(huì)被洗掉。(4)Shelter,leisureandtransport.Intermsofshelterthecontributionofmodernsyntheticpolymershasbeensubstantial.Plasticsaretendingtoreplacetraditionalbuildingmaterialslikewoodbecausetheyarelighter,maintenance-f

30、ree(i.e.theyareresistanttoweatheringanddonotneedpainting).Otherpolymers,e.g.urea-formaldehydeandpolyurethanes,areimportantinsulatingmaterialsforreducingheatlossesandhencereducingenergyusage.（4）住所，休閑和旅游。講到住所方面現(xiàn)代合成高聚物的貢獻(xiàn)是巨大的。塑料正在取代像木材一類的傳統(tǒng)建筑材料，因?yàn)樗鼈兏p，免維護(hù)（即它們可以抵抗風(fēng)化，不需油漆）。另一些高聚物，比如，脲甲醛和聚脲，是非常重要的絕緣材料可以減少

31、熱量損失因而減少能量損耗。Plasticsandpolymershavemadeaconsiderableimpactonleisureactivitieswithapplicationsrangingfromall-weatherartificialsurfacesforathletictracks,footballpitchesandtenniscourtstonylonstringsforracquetsanditemslikegolfballsandfootballsmadeentirelyfromsyntheticmaterials.塑料和高聚物的應(yīng)用對(duì)休閑活動(dòng)有很重要的影響，從體育

32、跑道的全天候人造篷頂，足球和網(wǎng)球的經(jīng)緯線，到球拍的尼龍線還有高爾夫球的元件，還有制造足球的合成材料。Likewisethechemicalindustryscontributiontotransportovertheyearshasledtomajorimprovements.Thusdevelopmentofimprovedadditiveslikeanti-oxidantsandviscosityindeximprovesforengineoilhasenabledroutineservicingintervalstoincreasefrom3000to6000to12000miles.R

33、esearchanddevelopmentworkhasalsoresultedinimprovedlubricatingoilsandgreases,andbetterbrakefluids.Yetagainthecontributionofpolymersandplasticshasbeenverystrikingwiththeproportionofthetotalautomobilederivedfromthesematerialsdashboard,steeringwheel,seatpaddingandcoveringetc.nowexceeding40%.多年來(lái)化學(xué)工業(yè)對(duì)旅游方面

34、所作的貢獻(xiàn)也有很大的提高。一些添加劑如抗氧化劑的開發(fā)和發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)油粘度指數(shù)改進(jìn)使汽車日產(chǎn)維修期限從3000英里延長(zhǎng)到6000英里再到12000英里。研發(fā)工作還改進(jìn)了潤(rùn)滑油和油脂的性能，并得到了更好的剎車油。塑料和高聚物對(duì)整個(gè)汽車業(yè)的貢獻(xiàn)的比例是驚人的，源于這些材料擋板，輪胎，坐墊和涂層等等超過40%。Soitisquiteapparentevenfromabrieflookatthechemicalindustryscontributiontomeetingourmajorneedsthatlifeintheworldwouldbeverydifferentwithouttheproductsof

35、theindustry.Indeedthelevelofacountrysdevelopmentmaybejudgedbytheproductionlevelandsophisticationofitschemicalindustry.很顯然簡(jiǎn)單地看一下化學(xué)工業(yè)在滿足我們的主要需求方面所做的貢獻(xiàn)就可以知道，沒有化工產(chǎn)品人類社會(huì)的生活將會(huì)多么困難。事實(shí)上，一個(gè)國(guó)家的發(fā)展水平可以通過其化學(xué)工業(yè)的生產(chǎn)水平和精細(xì)程度來(lái)加以判斷。4.ResearchandDevelopment(R&D)inChemicalIndustriesOneofthemainreasonsfortherapidgrowthoft

36、hechemicalindustryinthedevelopedworldhasbeenitsgreatcommitmentto,andinvestmentinresearchanddevelopment(R&D).Atypicalfigureis5%ofsalesincome,withthisfigurebeingalmostdoubledforthemostresearchintensivesector,pharmaceuticals.Itisimportanttoemphasizethatwearequotingpercentagesherenotofprofitsbutofsalesi

37、ncome,i.e.thetotalmoneyreceived,whichhastopayforrawmaterials,overheads,staffsalaries,etc.aswell.Inthepastthistremendousinvestmenthaspaidoffwell,leadingtomanyusefulandvaluableproductsbeingintroducedtothemarket.Examplesincludesyntheticpolymerslikenylonsandpolyesters,anddrugsandpesticides.Althoughthenu

38、mberofnewproductsintroducedtothemarkethasdeclinedsignificantlyinrecentyears,andintimesofrecessiontheresearchdepartmentisusuallyoneofthefirsttosuffercutbacks,thecommitmenttoR&Dremainsataveryhighlevel.化學(xué)工業(yè)的研究和開發(fā)。發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家化學(xué)工業(yè)飛速發(fā)展的一個(gè)重要原因就是它在研究和開發(fā)方面的投入和投資。通常是銷售收入的5%，而研究密集型分支如制藥，投入則加倍。要強(qiáng)調(diào)這里我們所提出的百分?jǐn)?shù)不是指利潤(rùn)而是指銷售

39、收入，也就是說(shuō)全部回收的錢，其中包括要付出原材料費(fèi)，企業(yè)管理費(fèi)，員工工資等等。過去這筆巨大的投資支付得很好，使得許多有用的和有價(jià)值的產(chǎn)品被投放市場(chǎng)，包括一些合成高聚物如尼龍和聚脂，藥品和殺蟲劑。盡管近年來(lái)進(jìn)入市場(chǎng)的新產(chǎn)品大為減少，而且在衰退時(shí)期研究部門通常是最先被裁減的部門，在研究和開發(fā)方面的投資仍然保持在較高的水平。Thechemicalindustryisaveryhightechnologyindustrywhichtakesfulladvantageofthelatestadvancesinelectronicsandengineering.Computersareverywidely

40、usedforallsortsofapplications,fromautomaticcontrolofchemicalplants,tomolecularmodelingofstructuresofnewcompounds,tothecontrolofanalyticalinstrumentsinthelaboratory.化學(xué)工業(yè)是高技術(shù)工業(yè)，它需要利用電子學(xué)和工程學(xué)的最新成果。計(jì)算機(jī)被廣泛應(yīng)用，從化工廠的自動(dòng)控制，到新化合物結(jié)構(gòu)的分子模擬，再到實(shí)驗(yàn)室分析儀器的控制。Individualmanufacturingplantshavecapacitiesrangingfromjustafew

41、tonesperyearinthefinechemicalsareatotherealgiantsinthefertilizerandpetrochemicalsectorswhichrangeupto500,000tonnes.Thelatterrequiresenormouscapitalinvestment,sinceasingleplantofthissizecannowcost$520million!This,coupledwiththewidespreaduseofautomaticcontrolequipment,helpstoexplainwhythechemicalindus

42、tryiscapital-ratherthanlabor-intensive.一個(gè)制造廠的生產(chǎn)量很不一樣，精細(xì)化工領(lǐng)域每年只有幾噸，而巨型企業(yè)如化肥廠和石油化工廠有可能高達(dá)500,000噸。后者需要巨大的資金投入，因?yàn)橐粋€(gè)這樣規(guī)模的工廠要花費(fèi)2億5千萬(wàn)美元，再加上自動(dòng)控制設(shè)備的普遍應(yīng)用，就不難解釋為什么化工廠是資金密集型企業(yè)而不是勞動(dòng)力密集型企業(yè)。Themajorchemicalcompaniesaretrulymultinationalandoperatetheirsalesandmarketingactivitiesinmostofthecountriesoftheworld,andthe

43、yalsohavemanufacturingunitsinanumberofcountries.Thisinternationaloutlookforoperations,orglobalization,isagrowingtrendwithinthechemicalindustry,withcompaniesexpandingtheiractivitieseitherbyerectingmanufacturingunitsinothercountriesorbytakingovercompanieswhicharealreadyoperatingthere.大部分化學(xué)公司是真正的跨國(guó)公司，他

44、們?cè)谑澜缟系脑S多國(guó)家進(jìn)行銷售和開發(fā)市場(chǎng)，他們?cè)谠S多國(guó)家都有制造廠。這種國(guó)際間的合作理念，或全球一體化，是化學(xué)工業(yè)中發(fā)展的趨勢(shì)。大公司通過在別的國(guó)家建造制造廠或者是收購(gòu)已有的工廠進(jìn)行擴(kuò)張。Unit2ResearchandDevelopment研究和開發(fā)Researchanddevelopment,orR&Dasitiscommonlyreferredto,isanactivitywhichiscarriedoutbyallsectorsofmanufacturingindustrybutitsextentvariesconsiderably,aswewillseeshortly.Letusfir

45、stunderstand,oratleastgetafeelfor,whatthetermsmean.Althoughthedistinctionbetweenresearchanddevelopmentisnotalwaysclear-cut,andthereisoftenconsiderableoverlap,wewillattempttoseparatethem.Insimpletermsresearchcanbethoughtofastheactivitywhichproducesnewideasandknowledgewhereasdevelopmentisputtingthosei

46、deasintopracticeasnewprocessandproducts.Toillustratethiswithanexample,predictingthestructureofanewmoleculewhichwouldhaveaspecificbiologicalactivityandsynthesizingitcouldbeseenasresearchwhereastestingitanddevelopingittothepointwhereitcouldbemarketedasanewdrugcouldbedescribedasthedevelopmentpart.研究和開發(fā)

47、，或通常所稱R&D是制造業(yè)各個(gè)部門都要進(jìn)行的一項(xiàng)活動(dòng)。我們馬上可以看到，它的內(nèi)容變化很大。我們首先了解或先感覺一下這個(gè)詞的含義。盡管研究和開發(fā)的定義總是分得不很清楚，而且有許多重疊的部分，我們還是要試著把它們區(qū)分開來(lái)。簡(jiǎn)單說(shuō)來(lái)，研究是產(chǎn)生新思想和新知識(shí)的活動(dòng)，而開發(fā)則是把這些思想貫徹到實(shí)踐中得到新工藝和新產(chǎn)品的行為。可以用一個(gè)例子來(lái)描述這一點(diǎn)，預(yù)測(cè)一個(gè)有特殊生物活性的分子結(jié)構(gòu)并合成它可以看成是研究而測(cè)試它并把它發(fā)展到可以作為一種新藥推向市場(chǎng)這一階段則看作開發(fā)部分。FundamentalResearchandAppliedResearchInindustrytheprimaryreasonfor

48、cartingoutR&Diseconomicandistostrengthenandimprovethecompanyspositionandprofitability.ThepurposeofR&Distogenerateandprovideinformationandknowledgetoreduceuncertainty,solveproblemsandtoprovidebetterdataonwhichmanagementcanbasedecisions.Specificprojectscoverawiderangeofactivitiesandtimescales,fromafew

49、monthsto20years.基礎(chǔ)研究和應(yīng)用研究在工業(yè)上進(jìn)行研究和開發(fā)最主要的原因是經(jīng)濟(jì)利益方面，是為了加強(qiáng)公司的地位，提高公司的利潤(rùn)。R&D的目的是做出并提供信息和知識(shí)以減低不確定性，解決問題，以及向管理層提供更好的數(shù)據(jù)以便他們能據(jù)此做出決定。特別的項(xiàng)目涵蓋很大的活動(dòng)范圍和時(shí)間范圍，從幾個(gè)月到20年。WecanpickoutanumberofareasofR&Dactivityinthefollowingparagraphsbutifweweretostartwiththosewhichweretospringtothemindoftheacademic,ratherthantheindu

50、strial,chemistthenthesewouldbebasic,fundamental(background)orexploratoryresearchandthesynthesisofnewcompounds.Thisisalsolabeled“blueskies”research.我們可以在后面的段落里舉出大量的R&D活動(dòng)。但是如果我們舉出的點(diǎn)子來(lái)源于研究院而不是工業(yè)化學(xué)家的頭腦，這就是基礎(chǔ)的或探索性的研究Fundamentalresearchistypicallyassociatedwithuniversityresearch.Itmaybecarriedoutforitsown

51、intrinsicinterestanditwilladdtothetotalknowledgebasebutnoimmediateapplicationsofitinthe“realworld”wellbeapparent.Notethatitwillprovideavaluabletrainingindefiningandsolvingproblems,i.e.researchmethodologyfortheresearchstudentwhocarriesitoutundersupervision.However,later“spinoffs”fromsuchworkcanleadto

52、usefulapplications.Thusphysicistsclaimthatbutforthestudyanddevelopmentofquantumtheorywemightnothavehadcomputersandnuclearpower.However,totakeaspecificallychemicalexample,generalstudiesonabroadareasuchashydrocarbonoxidationmightprovideinformationwhichwouldbeusefulinmorespecificareassuchascyclohexaneo

53、xidationfortheproductionofnylonintermediates.基礎(chǔ)研究通常與大學(xué)研究聯(lián)系在一起，它可能是由于對(duì)其內(nèi)在的興趣而進(jìn)行研究并且這種研究能夠拓寬知識(shí)范圍，但在現(xiàn)實(shí)世界中的直接應(yīng)用可能性是很小的。請(qǐng)注意，這種以內(nèi)就在提出和解決問題方面提供了極有價(jià)值的訓(xùn)練，比如，在指導(dǎo)下完成研究工作的學(xué)生所接受的研究方法學(xué)（的訓(xùn)練）。而且，從這些工作中產(chǎn)生的“有用的副產(chǎn)品”隨后也能帶來(lái)可觀的使用價(jià)值。因此，物理學(xué)家宣稱要不是量子理論的研究和發(fā)展我們可能仍然沒有計(jì)算機(jī)和核能量。不管怎樣，舉一個(gè)特殊的化學(xué)方面的例子吧，在各個(gè)領(lǐng)域如烴的氧化方面所做的廣泛的研究將為一些特殊的領(lǐng)域如環(huán)己

54、烯氧化生成尼龍中間產(chǎn)物提供有用的信息。Aspectsofsynthesiscouldinvolveeitherdevelopingnew,morespecificreagentsforcontrollingparticularfunctionalgroupinterconversions,i.e.developingsyntheticmethodologyorcompletesynthesisofanentirelynewmoleculewhichisbiologicallyactive.Althoughtheformerisclearlyfundamentalthelatterencompa

55、ssesboththisandappliedaspects.Thistermappliedhastraditionallybeenmoreassociatedwithresearchoutinindustriallaboratories,sincethisismorefocusedortargeted.Itisaconsequenceoftheworkbeingbusinessdriven.通過合成可以生產(chǎn)出一些新的、更特殊的試劑以控制特殊的官能團(tuán)轉(zhuǎn)換，即發(fā)展合成方法或完成一些具有生物活性的新分子的合成。盡管前者顯然屬于基礎(chǔ)性研究而后者則包括基礎(chǔ)研究和實(shí)用性研究?jī)刹糠帧Ｋ^“實(shí)用性”習(xí)慣上是指

56、與在工業(yè)實(shí)驗(yàn)室完成的研究聯(lián)系在一起的，因?yàn)樗吣康男?，它是商業(yè)行為驅(qū)動(dòng)的結(jié)果。Note,however,thattherehasbeenamajorchangeinrecentyearsasacademicinstitutionshaveincreasinglyturnedtoindustryforresearchfunding,withtheresultthatmuchmoreoftheirresearcheffortismowdevotedtomoreappliedresearch.Evenso,inacademiatheemphasisgenerallyisverymuchonther

57、esearchratherthanthedevelopment.然而，請(qǐng)注意。近幾年有很大的變化，大學(xué)研究機(jī)構(gòu)正越來(lái)越多地轉(zhuǎn)向工業(yè)界尋求研究經(jīng)費(fèi)，其結(jié)果就是他們的研究工作越來(lái)越多地是致力于實(shí)用研究。即使這樣，學(xué)院工作的重點(diǎn)通常還是在于研究而不是開發(fā)。TypesofIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentTheappliedormoretargetedtypeofresearchanddevelopmentcommonlycarriedoutinindustrycanbeofseveraltypesandwewillbrieflyconsidereach.Theyare:

58、()productdevelopment,()processdevelopment,()processimprovementand()applicationsdevelopment.Evenundertheseheadingsthereareamultitudeofaspectssoonlyatypicalexamplecanbequotedineachcase.Theemphasisoneachofthesewillvaryconsiderablywithinthedifferentsectorsofthechemicalindustry.2工業(yè)研究和開發(fā)的類型通常在生產(chǎn)中完成的實(shí)用型的或有

59、目的性的研究和開發(fā)可以分為好幾類，我們對(duì)此加以簡(jiǎn)述。它們是：（1）產(chǎn)品開發(fā)；（2）工藝開發(fā)；（3）工藝改進(jìn)；（4）應(yīng)用開發(fā)；每一類下還有許多分支。我們.對(duì)每一類舉一個(gè)典型的例子來(lái)加以說(shuō)明。在化學(xué)工業(yè)的不同部門內(nèi)每類的工作重點(diǎn)有很大的不同。(1)Productdevelopment.Productdevelopmentincludesnotonlythediscoveryanddevelopmentofanewdrugbutalso,forexample,providinganewlonger-activeanti-oxidantadditivetoanautomobileengineoil.D

60、evelopmentsuchasthishaveenabledservicingintervalstoincreaseduringthelastdecadefrom3000to6000to9000andnowto12000miles.Notethatmostpurchasersofchemicalsacquirethemfortheeffectsthattheyproducei.e.aspecificuse.Teflon,orpolytetrafluoroethylene(PTFE),maybepurchasedbecauseitimpartsanon-sticksurfacetocookin