語言學導論-第4章Syntax

SentenceStructure:SyntaxInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNVDetN

AboywillfindtheevidenceInflSyntax句法學Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.Syntaxtheories:TransformationalsyntaxTransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)轉換生成語法TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)

Noam.Chomsky(1928-)themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……

Criteriaongoodgrammar

Observationaladequacy觀察充分性Descriptiveadequacy描述充分性Explanatoryadequacy解釋充分性Theultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.Chomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).Categories范疇Agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguage,e.g.,ASentence:Theboykickedtheball.ANounPhrase:strongman,tallestboyAVerb:kick,run,goSyntacticcategories句法范疇cangenerallysubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.

e.g.,The____smiles.manboygirlWord-levelcategoriesTraditionalgrammar:8partsofspeechNounVerbAdjectiveAdverbPronounPrepositionConjunctionInterjection“Oh,Ouch,eh,Hey,…”MajorlexicalcategoriesNoun(N)Verb(V)Adjective(A)Preposition(P)MinorlexicalcategoriesDeterminer(Det)限定詞:the,a,this,thoseDegree(Deg)程度詞:quite,very,more,soQualifier(Qual)修飾詞:often,always,seldom,almostAuxiliary(Aux)助詞:must,should,can,mightConjunction(Con):and,but,orWord-levelcategoriesCriteriatodeterminewordcategoriesMeaning：thetypeofmeaningthattheyexpressInflection：thetypeofaffixesthattheytakeDistributionthetypeofstructuresinwhichtheyoccurWord-levelcategoriesMeaning：

N.:todenoteentitiesandobjectse.g.,John,Mary,pen,book

V.:todesignateaction,sensationandstatese.g.,run,hate,exist

Adj.:tomodifypropertyofnounse.g.,prettylady

Adv.:todenotepropertyofverbse.g.,Jennyleftquietly.Notalwaysreliable:Hestandsstill.

love–hate

beawareof

–

knowaboutInflection--affixWordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.E.g.,Pluralaffix“s”

–N.Pasttense“ed”,progressiveaffix“ing”

–

V.Comparativeaffix“er”,superlative“est”

–

A.

Exception:milk,stand-stood,let-let,morecompetitive

“s”

–thirdpersonsingular

“ed”

–Adj.(deviationalaffix)

“er”

–teacher(deviationalaffix)Distribution--collocationWhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.

E.g.,N.–Det.:thecar,agirlV.–

Aux.:wouldgo,shouldstayA.–Deg.:

verycool,toobrightEx7ExerciseCategoriestheboyintheclassroomalwaysplayfootballveryclosetothelibraryquitenearthestationPhrasecategoriesThesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory,e.g.,NP:girl

theprettygirlVP:dreamoftendreamAP:pessimisticverypessimisticPP:aboutmainlyaboutNPVPAPPP--phraselevelNVAP--wordlevelThestructure:

a

picture

onthewall

+head+

標志語中心詞補語Head:thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier:thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement:thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasecategoriesspecifiercomplementPhrasestructurerules短語結構規(guī)則Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase:NP(Det)+N+(PP)…e.g.,thosepeople,thefishontheplateVP(Qual)+V+(NP)…e.g.,alwaysplaygames,finishassignmentsAP(Deg)+A+(PP)…e.g.,veryhandsome,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)…e.g.,ontheshelf,quitenearthestationEx8SpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:XstandsforN,V,AorP.TheXPrule:XP(specifier)X(complement)ExerciseDrawthestructureofthefollowingphrasestheboyintheclassroomalwaysplayfootballveryclosetothelibraryquitenearthestationCoordinationrule

并列規(guī)則Coordinatestructures:thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunction.

Fourproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.

Coordinationrule:XX*ConXEx10Phraseelements短語成分SpecifierHeadComplementModifierSpecifierHeadComplement

XPX:N,V,A(Adv),PSpecifiers標志語Functions:Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;Syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.

Specifiers:determinersasinNP:thetree,thisbookqualifiersasinVP:alwaysfail,neversurrenderdegreewordsasinAP:quitegood,verysensitive

PP:almostin,quiteaboveComplements補語ComplementscanbephrasesProvidinginformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningoftheheadAttachedtotherightoftheheadE.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirlnervousabouttheexaminthelakeopenthedoorsendmeanemailputitonthewallTherecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,E.g.,aVP:

appear,break...,put…

Asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplement,E.g.,Ibelieved

thatshewasinnocent.

Idoubt

ifshewillcome.Complementizers補語化成分:that/if:Complementclause:theclausesintroducedbycomplementizers.

Complementphrase(CP)Complements補語Ex11(1)Modifiers修飾語Specifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads:

manner

andtime

ModifierExamplesN:AP

averycarefulboy

V:AdvPreadcarefully;carefullyreadV:PPopenwithcareTheExpandedXPrule:

XP(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)

Ex9(1)ExercisetheprettyladyintheroomreaditcarefullyopenthebookwithcareSentences(theSrule)

SNPVP

SNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence

SNPinflVPInflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)Head(tense&agreement)Inflrealizedbyatense

labelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNPstVDetNAboy

foundtheevidenceInflInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNVDetN

AboywillfindtheevidenceInflEx9(2)Ex11(2)Transformations轉換

Auxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNPInversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.E.g.:Willthetrainarrive?VPAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInflDetNVWillthetrainarriveeInflVPEx13(a)DoinsertionInsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.

CPCSNPInflVP1)BirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVP2)Birdsdofly3)DobirdseflyE.g.:

Birdsfly.Dobirdsfly?E.g.:Willthetrainarrive?TheXPrule

thetrainwillarriveTransformations

WillthetrainarriveDeepstructure&surfacestructure

DeepstructureSurfacestructureTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplementsWh-movementWhquestions：Whatcanyoutalkabout?Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?

Deepstructures:Youcantalkaboutwhat.Yo