完整版英語詞匯學(xué)知識點歸納

（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納EnglishLexicology（英語詞匯學(xué)）Lexicology（詞匯學(xué)）：isabranchoflinguistics,inquiringintotheoriginsandmeaningsofwordsoTheNatureandScopeofEnglishlexicology：EnglishlexicologyaimsatinvestigatingandstudyingthemorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandwordequivalents,theirsemanticstructuresrelations,historicaldevelopment,formationandusagesoThesubjectsthatEnglishLexicologycorrelatedwithandextentto:EnglishLexicologyiscorrelatedwithsuchlinguisticdisciplinesasmorphology（形態(tài)學(xué)），semantics（語義學(xué)），etymology（詞源學(xué)），stylistics（文體論）andlexicography（詞典學(xué)）ThereasonforastudenttostudyEnglishlexicology:Accordingtothetextbook,EnglishLexicologywilldefinitelybebeneficialforstudentsofEnglish.AgoodknowledgeofmorphologicalstructuresofEnglishwordsandrulesofword-formationwillhelplearnersdeveloptheirpersonalvocabularyandconsciouslyincreasetheirwordpower.Theinformationofthehistoricaldevelopmentandtheprinciplesofclassificationwillgivethemadeeperunderstandingofword-meaningandenablethemtoorganize,classifyandstorewordsmoreeffectively.Theunderstandingandtheirsenserelationswillgraduallyraisetheirawarenessofmeaningandusage,andenablethemusewordsmoreaccuratelyandappropriately。Aworkingknowledgeofdictionarieswillimprovetheirskillsofusingreferencebooksandraisetheirproblem-solvingabilityandefficiencyofindividualstudy.Chapter1 BasicconceptsofwordsandvocabularyWord（詞的定義）：Awordisaminimalfreeformofalanguagethathasagivensoundandmeaningandsyntacticfunction。（1）aminimalfreeformofalanguage（2）asoundunity（3）aunitofmeaning（4）aformthatcanfunctionaloneinasentenceSoundand巾62門58（聲音與意義）：almostarbitrary,“nologicalrelationshipbetweenthesoundwhichstandsforathingoranideaandtheactualthingandideaitself”Soundandform（讀音和形式）：不統(tǒng)一的四個原因（1）theEnglishalphabetwasadoptedfromtheRomans,whichdoesnothaveaseparatelettertorepresenteachother（2）thepronunciationhaschangedmorerapidlythanspellingovertheyears（3）someofthedifferencewerecreatesbytheearlyscribes（4）theborrowingsisanimportantchannelofenrichingtheEnglishvocabularyVocabulary（詞匯）：allthewordsinalanguagemakeupitsvocabularyClassificationofEnglishWords:（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Byusefrequency:basicwordstock&nonbasicvocabularyBynotion：contentwords&functionalwordsByorigin:nativewords&borrowedwordsThebasicwordstock（基本詞匯）：isthefoundationofthevocabularyaccumulatedovercenturiesandformsthecommoncoreofthelanguage.ThoughitconstituteasmallpercentageoftheEV,itisthemostimportantpartofvocabulary.TheFundamentalFeaturesoftheBasicWordStock（基本詞匯的特征）：1）All-Nationalcharacter（全民通用性mostimportant）2）Stability（相對穩(wěn)定性）3）Productivity（多產(chǎn)性）4）Polysemy（多義性）5）Collocability（可搭配性）沒有上述特征的words:（l）Terminology（術(shù)語） （2）Jargon（行話）（3）slang（俚語）（4）Argot（暗語）（5）Dialectalwords（方言）（6）Archaisms（古語）（7）Neologisms（新詞語）：Neologismsmeansnewly一createdwordsorexpressions,orwordsthathavetakenonnewmeaningso（email）Contentwords/notionalwords實詞（cloud,runwalk,never,five,frequently）andfunctionalwords/emptywords虛詞（on,of,and,be,but）NativeWordsandBorrowedWordsNativewords（本族語詞）：knownasAnglo-Saxonwords（50,000-60,000）,arewordsbroughttoBritaininthe5thcenturybytheGermanictribes.（mainstreamofthebasicword-stocks）.Twootherfeatures:（1）neutralinstyle（2）frequentinuseBorrowedwords/Loanwords（夕卜來語詞）：wordstakenoverfromforeignlanguages.（80%ofmodernEV）4Typesofloanwords:denizens（同化詞）：（shirtfromskyrta（ON））aliens（非同化詞/外來詞）:areborrowedwordswhichhaveretainedtheiroriginalpronunciationandspelling（kowtow（CH）磕頭）translationloans（譯借詞）：按其他語言方式組成英語longtimenosee（fromChina）semanticloans（借義詞）：theyarenotborrowedwithreferencetotheform,buttheirmeaningsareborrowedChapter2thedevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabularyTheIndo—EuropeanLanguageFamily（印歐語系）TheEightGroupsinIndo一EuropeanFamilyofLanguages（8大印歐語群）TheEasternset:（1）TheBalto一slavicGroup（波羅的一斯拉夫語族）：Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czechetc.（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納(2)TheIndo—IranianGroup(印度-伊朗語族)：Hindi,Bengali,Persianetc。(3)TheArmenianGroup(亞美尼亞語族)：Armenian。(4)TheAlbanianGroup(阿爾巴尼亞語族)：Albanian。TheWesternset:(5)TheHellenicGroup(古希臘語族)：Greek。(6)TheItalianGroup(意大利語族)：Latin，Romancelanguages(French，Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian)etc.(7)TheCelticGroup(凱爾特語族)：Irish,Welsh,Bretonetc.(8)TheGermanicGroupE耳曼語族)：Flemish，German,Dutch，Scandinavian(Norweigian,Swedish,Danish,Icelandic)etc.TheThreeStagesofDevelopmentoftheEnglishVocabulary:OldEnglish(450—1100)(vocabulary50，000to60,000):wasIhighinflectedlanguage。MiddleEnglish(1150—1500)：retainesmuchfewerinflectionsModernEnglish(1500—uptonow)：infactmorethan25%ofmodernEwordscomealmostdirectlyfromclassicallanguages。InModernE,wordsendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexpections.Englishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguage(OldEnglish)tothepresentanalyticlanguage。ModesofVocabularyDevelopment(詞匯的發(fā)展模.式)：)creation創(chuàng)造新詞：theformationofnewwordsbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelytoots,affixesandotherelements。(最重要方式)semanticchange舊詞新義:doesnotincreasethenumberofwordformsbutcreatemanymorenewuseagesofthewords。borrowing借用外來詞：constitutemerely6to7percentofallnewwordsRevivingwordsorobsoletewordsalsocontributestothegrowthofEnglishvocabularythoughquiteinsignificant.WordFormationIMorpheme(詞素)：thesmallestfunctioningunitinthecompositionofwordsAllomorph(詞素變體)：isadifferentvariantformofamorpheme,differinphonologicalandspellingform,butatthesameinfunctionandmeaningTypeofMorpheme(詞素的分類)(1)FreeMorphemes(自由詞素)：havecompletemeaninginthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunitsinsentences。Afreemorphemeisonethatcanstandbyitself。(independent).(2)BoundMorpheme(粘著語素)：Aboundmorphemeisonethatcannotstandbyitself.（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納BoundMorphemeincludestwotypes:（1）boundroot（粘附詞根） （2）Affix（詞綴）Affixescanbeputintotwogroups：1）Inflectionalaffixes（屈折詞綴）：affixesattachedtotheendofwordstoindicategrammaticalrelationshipsareinflectional,thusknownasinflectionalmorphemes.2）Derivationalaffixes（派生詞綴）：A）prefix:Aprefixcomesbeforewords.B）suffix：Anadjectivesuffix（形容詞后綴）thatisaddedtothestemwhateverclassisbelongsto，theresultwillbeanadjective.FreeMorpheme=freeroot（自由詞根）Morpheme（詞素）{Boundroot prefixdderivational[affix[_ suffixinflectionalRootandstem（詞根和詞干）Thedifferencesbetweenrootandstem:Arootisthebasicformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Astemisthesurpluspartafterthecuttingofinflectionalmorphemeinawordwithinflectionalmorphemes,canbefurtheranalyzed,itsometimescouldbearoot。Word—FormationII（構(gòu)詞法）oAffixation詞綴法（Derivation派生法）：theformationofwordsbyaddingword一formaingorderivationalaffixestostem.（l）Prefixation（前綴法）：It'stheformationofnewwordsbyaddingaprefixestostems。）Negativeprefixes（否定前綴）：un-,non一，in一，dis,a一，il一，ir一,im一，etc。disobey（notobey）Reversativeprefixes（逆反前綴）：un-,de-,dis一etc.unwrap（open）Pejorativeprefixes:mis（貶義前綴）：mis-,mal-,pseudo一etc。misconduct（badbehaviour）Prefixesofdegreeorsize（程度前綴）：arch-,extra一,hyper一,macro一，micro-,mini-,out—,over-,sub—,super-,sur—,ultra—,under—,ect。overweightPrefixesoforientationandattitude（傾向態(tài)度前綴）：contra—,counter—,anti-,pro-etc。anti—nuclear(完整word版)《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Locativeprefixes(方位前綴)：extra—,fore-,inter—,intra—,tele—,trans—,etc。extraordinary(morethanordinary)Prefixesoftimeandorder(時間和順序前綴)：fore—,pre-，post-，ex—,re—etc.monorail(onerail)Numberprefixes(數(shù)字前綴)：uni—,mono—，bi—，di—,tri-,multi-，poly-，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerningtwolanguages)Miscellaneousprefixes(混雜前綴)：auto—,neo—，pan-,vice—ovice—chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation(后綴法)：It'stheformationofanewwordbyaddingsuffixestostems.1)nounsuffixes2)adjectivesuffixes3)Adverbsuffixes4)verbsuffixes.Compounding復(fù)合法(alsocalledcomposition)Compounding:istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestemsCompoundsarewritteninthreeways:solid連寫(airmail),hyphenated帶連字符(air-conditioning)andopen分開寫(airforce,airraid)Formationofcompounds(復(fù)合詞的形式)(1)nouncompounds:e.g.:air+plane=airplane,flower+pot=flowerpotadjectivecompounds:e°g.acid+head=acid一headverbcompounds:e.g.house+keep=housekeep.Conversion轉(zhuǎn)類法Conversion:istheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass功(能轉(zhuǎn)換，又叫零派生。functionalshift/zero-derivation)4oBlending拼綴法Blending:istheformationofnewwordsbycombiningpartsoftwowordsorawordplusapartofanotherword。e.g:motor+hotel=motel,smoke+fog=smog,formula+translation=FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:istoshortenalongerwordbycuttingapartofftheoriginalandusingwhatremainsinsteadoe。g.planefromairplane, phonefromtelephone.四種形式：).Frontclippings刪節(jié)前面(phonefromtelephone)).Backclippings刪節(jié)后面(dormfromdormitory)).Frontandbackclippings前后刪節(jié)(flufrominfluenza)（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納）oPhraseclippings短語刪節(jié)（popfrompopularmusic）Acronymy首字母縮寫法Acronymy:istheprocessofformingnewwordsbyjoiningtheinitiallettersofnamesofsocialandpoliticalorganizationsorspecialnounphrasesandtechnicalterms。（1）Initialism（首字母縮寫詞法）：initialismsarewordspronouncedletterbyletter.e.g.:BBC（forBritishBroadcastingcorporation）（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）：AcronymsarewordsformedfrominitiallettersbutpronouncedasanormalwordoE.g.:TEFL（teachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage）7.Back—formation（逆生法，逆構(gòu)詞）Back一formationisconsideredtobetheoppositeprocessofsuffixation.It'sthemethodofcreatingwordsbyremovingthesupposedsuffixes.（greedfromgreedy）8oWordsFromProperName（專有名詞轉(zhuǎn)成法）：Namesofpeople,places,book,andtradenames（e。g.:sirwattsiemens（人名） 32世（瓦特,電功率單位）Chapter5WordMeaningThemeaningsof“Meaning”（“意義”的意義）Reference（所指）：ItistherelationshipbetweenlanguageandtheworodItisthearbitraryandconventional.Itisakindofabstraction,yetwiththehelpofcontext,itcanrefertosomethingspecific.Concept（概念）：whichisbeyondlanguageistheresultofhumancognition認識），reflectingtheobjectiveworldinthehumanmind.Sense（意義）：Itdenotestherelationshipinsidethelanguage.’Thesenseofanexpressionisitsplaceinasystemofsemanticrelationshipswithotherexpressionsinthelanguage.’Motivation（理據(jù)）：Itaccountsfortheconnectionbetweenthelinguisticsymbolanditsmeaning1）Onomatopoeicmotivation（擬聲理據(jù)）：wordswhosesoundssuggesttheirmeaning,forthesewordswerecreatesbyimitatingthenaturalsoundsornoises.KnowingthesoundsofthewordsmeansunderstandingthemeaningoE.g.：bang,ping一pong,haha。2）Morphologicalmotivation（形態(tài)理據(jù)）：multi—morphemicwordsandthemeaningofmanyarethesumtotalofthemorphemescombines.E.g.：airmail,miniskirt。例外：blackmarket,ecto（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納3）Semanticmotivation（詞義理據(jù)）：referstothementalassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaningofaword.ItexplainstheconnectionbetweentheliteralsenseandfigurativesenseofthewordoE.g：thefootofthemountain（foot）4）Etymologicalmotivation（詞源理據(jù)）：thehistoryofthewordexplainsthemeaningofthewordoE.g:pen—featherTypesofmeaning（詞義的類別）oGrammaticalMeaning（語法意義）：indicatesthegrammaticalconceptorrelationships（becomesimportantonlyinactualcontext）.LexicalMeaning（詞匯意義）（Lexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaningmakeuptheword-meaning）Lexicalmeaninghas2components內(nèi)容：Conceptualmeaning（概念意義）andassociativemeaning（關(guān)聯(lián)意義）1）Conceptualmeaning（概念意義）：alsoknownasdenotativemeaning（外延意義）isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandformsthecoreofword—meaning.2）Associativemeaning（關(guān)聯(lián)意義）：isthesecondarymeaningsupplementedtotheconceptualmeaningo[4types:（1）Connotative（內(nèi)涵意義）：theovertonesorassociationssuggestedbytheconceptualmeaning,traditionallyknownasconnotations°（例如“母親”經(jīng)常與“愛”“關(guān)心""溫柔"聯(lián)系起來）（2）Stylistic（文體意義）：manywordshavestylisticfeatures,whichmakethemappropriatefordifferentcontextso（3）Affective（感情意義）：indicatesthespeaker'sattitudetowardsthepersonorthinginquestion。這種情感價值觀分兩類：褒義和貶義appreciative&pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意義）：isthepartoftheword-meaningsuggestedbythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.]Chapter6 Senserelationandsemanticfield（語義關(guān)系和語義場）Polysemy（多義關(guān)系）Twoapproachedtopolysemy（多義關(guān)系的兩種研究方法）：l.diachronicapproach（歷時方法）：fromthediachronicpointofview,polysemyisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.Firstmeaningistheprimarymeaning,thelatermeaningsarecalledderivedmeaningsosynchronicapproach（共時方法）：synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinacertainhistoricalperiodoftime?；疽饬x是centralmeaning,次要意義是derivedmeaningo（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Twoprocessesofdevelopment（詞義的兩種發(fā)展類型）：radiation（輻射型）：isasemanticprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsatthecentreandthesecondarymeaningsproceedoutofitineverydirectionlikerayeso（e.g：face，neck）concatenation（連鎖型）：isthesemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovegraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnotasignofconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandthatwhichthetermhadatthebeginningo（e。g:treacle）Inradiation,eachofthederivedmeaningisdirectlyconnectedtotheprimarymeaning,Inconcatenation,eachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingonelikechains.ThoughthelatestsensecanbetracedbacktotheoriginalthereisnodirectconnectioninbetweenoTheyarecloselyrelated,beingdifferentstagesofthedevelopmentleadingtopolysemy。Generally,radiationprecedesconcatenation,Inmanycases,thetwoprocessesworktogether,complementingeachotheroHomonymy（同形同音異義關(guān)系）：wordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspellingoTypesofhomonyms（同音同形異義關(guān)系的類別））Perfecthomonyms（完全同音同形異義詞）：wordsidenticalbothinsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaning.2）Homographs（同形異義詞）：wordsidenticalonlyinspelling,butdifferentinsoundandmeaning,（最多最常見））Homophones（同音異義詞）：wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning,Originsofhomonyms（同形同音異義詞的來源））changeinsoundandspelling：（eare一ear, lang-long,langian-long）borrowing（feria一fair,beallu-ball,baller-ball）Shortening（縮略）： （ad—advertisement,）ThedifferentiationofHomonymsfromPolysemes（同音同形異義詞和多義詞的區(qū)別）：）Thefundamentaldifference：Homonymyreferstodifferentwordswhichhappentosharethesameformandpolysemyaretheoneandsamewordwhichhasseveraldistinguishablemeanings.2）Oneimportantcriterionistoseetheiretymology（詞源）：Homonymysarefromdifferentsources,Polysemantisfromthesamesource.3）Thesecondprincipleconsiderationissemanticrelatedness（語義關(guān)聯(lián)）：Thevariousmeaningsofpolysemantarecorrelatedandconnectedtoonecentralmeaning.Meaningsofdifferenthomonymyshavenothingtodowithoneanother.Indictionaries,apolysemanthasitsmeaningalllistedunderoneheadwordwhereashomonymsarelistedasseparateentries.（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Rhetoricfeaturesofhomonyms（同形同音異義詞的修辭特色）：Ashomonymsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,particularlyhomophones，theyareoftenemployedtocreatepunsfordesiredeffectof，say，humor，sarcasmorridicule。Synonymy（同義關(guān)系）：oneoftwoormorewordsintheEnglishlanguagewhichhavethesameorverynearlythesameessentialmeaning。TypesofSynonymy（同義詞的類別）：）Absolute5丫門。門丫巾5（完全同義詞）：alsoknownascompletesynonymsarewordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallaspect，i。e.bothingrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaning，includingconceptualandassociativemeanings。[Absolutesynonymsarerestrictedtohighlyspecializedvocabularyinlexicology。]）relativesynonyms（相對同義詞）：alsocallednear一synonymsaresimilarornearlythesameindenotation，butembracedifferentshadesofmeaningordifferentdegreesofagivenqualioty（e。g:change/alter/vary，stagger/reel/totter，strange/odd/queer，idle/lazy/indolent）Sourcesofsynonyms（同義詞的來源） ：1）Borrowing（借詞）：最重要的來源（room—chamber，foe-enemy,help一aid,leave-depart,wise一sage，buy-purchase）DialectsandregionalEnglish（方言和地區(qū)英語）Figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwords（單詞的修飾和委婉用法）：occupation/profession—walkoflife，dreamer star-gazer，drunk-elevated,lie一distortoffact.Coincidencewithidiomaticexpressions（與習(xí)慣表達一致）：win—gaintheupperhand，decide一makeupone'smind，finish一getthrough,hesitate一beintwominds，help一lendoneahand。DiscriminationofSynonymsdifferenceindenotation夕卜延不同。Synonymsmaydifferintherangeandintensityofmeaning.（rich—wealthy,work-toil，want-wish一desire）differenceinconnotation內(nèi)涵不同。Byconnotationwemeanthestylisticandemotivecolouringofwords.Somewordssharethesamedenotationbutdifferintheirstylisticappropriateness（借詞：answer-respond，storm-tempest，wood—forest，handy—manual，unlike—dissimilar,homely-domestic，fleshy-carnal.中性詞：policeman-constable-bobby-cop，ask-beg-request。古語詞、詩歌：ire/anger,bliss-happiness,forlorn-distresses,dire-dreadful，list-listen，enow—enough，save—expect，mere—lake）differenceinapplication。Manywordsaresynonymousinmeaningbutdifferenceinusageinsimpleterms.Theyformdifferentcollocationsandfitintodifferencesentencepatterns。（allowsb。todosth。-letsb。dosth./answertheletter—replytotheletter）Antonymy（反義關(guān)系）：itisconcernedwithsemanticopposition。Antonymscanbedefinedaswordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.TypesofAntonyms：1）contradictoryterms（矛盾反義詞）：theseantonymstrulyrepresentoppositenessofmeaning特點：①Theassertionofoneisthedenialoftheother.②Suchantonymsarenon—adable.They(完整word版)《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納cannotbeusedincomparativedegreesanddonotallowadverbsofintensitylike“very"toqualifythemo (eog：single/married)2)contraryterms(對立反義詞)：antonymsofthistypearebestviewedintermsofascalerunningbetweentwopolesorextremes.(e。g:old/young,rich/young,big/small)Thetwooppositesaregradableandoneexistsincomparisonwiththeother。3)relativeterms(關(guān)系反義詞)：thistypeconsistsofrelationalopposites.(parent/child,husband/wife,employee/employer,sell/buy,receive一give)Someofthecharacteristicsofantonyms(反義關(guān)系的特點)：1)antonymsareclassifiedonthebasisofsemanticopposition(語義對立)2)awordwhichhasmorethanonemeaningcanhavemorethanoneantonymantonymsdifferinsemanticinclusion(語義內(nèi)涵)contrarytermsaregradableantonyms,differingindegreeofintensity,soeachhasitsowncorrespondingopposite。(hot/warm:hot一cold/warm-cool)Theuseofantonyms(反義詞的使用)1)Antonymsarehelpfulandvaluableindefiningthemeaningofwords。2)Toexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthoughtforthesakeofcontrast.(e。g:nowornever,rainorshine,friendorfoe敵友，wealandwoe哀樂)3)Toformantithesis(對比法)toachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideatogether.(proverbsandsayings:easycome,easygo./morehaste,lessspeed.)Hyponymy(上下義關(guān)系)：Hyponymydealswiththerelationshipofsemanticinclusion.ThemeaningofamorespecificwordisincludedinthatofanothermoregeneralwordoForexample,acatishyponymofanimalSuperordinateandSubordinate(上義詞和下義詞)：usesubordinateswhichareconcreteandprecise,presentingavividverbalpicturebeforethereader.Superordinateswhichconveyonlyageneralandvagueidea。SemanticField(語義場)Viewingthetotalmeaninginthiswayisthebasisoffieldtheory.e。go(apple,pear,peach,date,mango,orange,lemon,etc.makeupthesemanticfieldof‘fruits')Thesemanticfieldofthesameconceptmaynothavethesamemembersindifferentlanguage.e。go(auntinEnglish,maymeans“父親的姐姐，媽媽的姐姐，父親哥哥的妻子"inChinese.(122)（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Chapter7ChangesinWordMeaning詞義的演變Vocabularyisthemostunstableelementofalanguageasitisundergoingconstantchangesbothinformandcontent.Comparativelythecontentisevenmoreunstablethantheform.TypesofChanges（詞義變化的種類）1。Extension/generalization（詞義的擴大）：isthenamegiventothewideningofmeaningwhichsomewordsundergo.Itisaprocessbywhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralizedo（e.g：manuscript,fabulous，picture，mill,journal,bonfire,butcher,companion）2。Narrowing/specialization（詞義的縮小）：istheoppositeofwideningmeaning.Itisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense。Inotherwords,awordwhichusedtohaveamoregeneralsensebecomesrestrictedinitsapplicationandconveysaspecialmeaninginpresent一dayEnglisho（e.g:deer,corn,garage,liquor,meat,disease,poison,wife,accident,girl）.[whenacommonwordisturnedintoapropernoun,themeaningisnarrowedaccordinglyo].Elevation/amelioration（詞義的升華）：referstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumble粗陋的）beginningstopositionsofimportance.[nice,marshal,constable,angel,knight,earl,governor,fond,minister,chamberlain].Degradation/pejoration（詞義的降格）：Aprocesswherebywordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon一affectivewordscometousedinderogatory（貶損的）sense.[boor,churl,wench,hussy,villain,silly,knave,lewd,criticize,lust].Transfer（詞義的轉(zhuǎn)移）：Wordswhichwereusedtodesignate指明onethingbutlaterchangedtomeansomethingelsehaveexperiencedtheprocessofsemantictransfer。CausesofSemanticChange（詞義變化的原因）I.Extra-linguisticfactors（詞義演變的語言外部因素）：）Historicalreason（歷史原因）：Increasedscientificknowledgeanddiscovery,objects,institutions,ideaschangeinthecourseoftime.E。g:pen,car,computero）Classreason（階級原因）：Theattitudeofclasseshavealsomadeinroadsintolexicalmeaninginthecaseofelevationordegradationo）Psychologicalreason（心理原因）：theassociatedtransferofmeaningandeuphemisticuseofwordsareoftenduetopsychologicalfactors.Suchslow,humbleanddespisedoccupationstakemoreappealingnamesisallduetopsychologicalreasonso.Linguisticfactors（語言內(nèi)部原因）：thechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorswithinthelanguagesystem.1）shorting縮略:gold-goldmedal,gas一coalgas,bulb一lightbulb,private一privatesoldier）borrowing借用：deer—animal-beast3）analogy類推：（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納Chapter8MeaningandContext詞義和語境ContextinitstraditionalsensereferstothelexicalitemsthatprecedeorfollowagivenwordModernlinguistshavebroadeneditsscopetoincludebothlinguisticandextra—linguisticcontexts.Twotypesofcontext（語境的種類）oExtra-linguisticcontext/Non-linguisticsituation（非語言語境）：Inabroadsense，contextincludesthephysicalsituationaswell,whichembracesthepeopletime,place,andeventhewholeculturalbackground.（lookout,weekend,landlord）2oLinguisticcontext/grammaticalcontext（語言語境）：Inanarrowsense,itreferstothewords,clauses,sentencesinwhichawordappearsItmaycoveraparagraph,awholechapterandeventheentirebook。分為兩類：）Lexicalcontext（詞匯語境）：Itreferstothewordthatoccurstogetherwiththewordinquestion.（e。g:paper,do））Grammaticalcontext（語法語境）：Itrefersthesituationwhenthemeaningofawordmaybeinfluencedbythestructureinwhichitoccurs。（e。g：become）Theroleofcontext（語境的作用）I.Eliminationof2由^85七丫（消除歧義）Ambiguityduetopolysemyorhomonymy.Grammaticalstructurecanalsoleadtoambiguity如何消除歧義？ ①extendtheoriginalsentence②alterthecontextalittle2oIndicationofreferents（限定所指）如何限定所指？ ①withclearcontext②withadequateverbalcontext3.Provisionofcluesforinferringword-meaning（提供線索以猜測詞義）1）definition2）explanation3）example4）synonymy5）antonymy6）hyponymy（上下義關(guān)系）7）relevantdetails（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納8）wordstructureChapter9EnglishIdioms英語習(xí)語Idioms（習(xí)語的定義）：areexpressionsthatarenotreadilyunderstandablefromtheirliteralmeaningofindividualelements。Inabroadsense,idiommayincludecolloquialisms（俗語），Catchphrases（標語），slangexpressions（俚語），proverbs（諺語），etc。TheyformanimportantpartoftheEnglishvocabulary。CharacteristicsofIdioms（英語習(xí)語的特點）1.Semanticunity（語意的整體性）：wordsintheidiomtheyhavelosttheirindividualidentityTheirmeaningsarenotoftenrecognizableinthemeaningofthewholeidiom.Thesemanticunityofidiomsisalsoreflectedintheillogicalrelationshipbetweentheliteralmeaningofeachoftheidiom。2.Structuralstability（結(jié)構(gòu)的穩(wěn)定性）：thestructureofanidiomistoalargeextentunchangeable.theconstituentsofidiomscannotbereplacedthewordordercannotbeinvertedorchangedtheconstituentsofidiomscannotbedeletedoraddedto，notevenanarticle。manyidiomsaregrammaticallyunchangeableThefixityofidiomdependsontheidiomaticity。習(xí)語性表達習(xí)慣ClassificationofIdioms（英語習(xí)語的分類）.idiomsnominalinnature名詞性習(xí)語（whiteelephant累贅物）.idiomsadjectivalinnature形容詞性習(xí)語（aspoorasachurchmouse）3。idiomsverbalinnature動詞性習(xí)語（lookinto）.idiomsadverbialinnature副詞性習(xí)語（toothandnail拼命）.sentenceidioms句式習(xí)語（neverdothingsbyhalves）Useofidioms（習(xí)語的使用）1.Stylisticfeatures（文體色彩）：）colloquialisms（俗語））slang（俚語）（完整word版）《英語詞匯學(xué)》知識點歸納)literaryexpressions(書面表達)Thesameidiommayshowstylisticdifferenceswhenitisassigned(指派)differentmeanings.2。Rhetoricalfeatures(修辭色彩)phoneticmanipulation(語音處理)：(1)alliteration頭韻法rhyme尾韻法lexicalmanipulation(詞法處理)reiteration(duplicationofsynonyms)同義詞并舉[screamandshout]repetition重復(fù)加｛andout]juxtaposition(ofantonyms)反義詞并置[hereandthere]3。figuresofspeech(修辭格)simile明喻metaphor暗喻metonymy換喻/以名詞代動作：livebyone’spensynecdoche提喻/以部分代整體：earnone’sbread(5)Personification擬人法Euphemism委婉語：kickthebucket(die)hyperbole夸張：aworldoftroubleVariationsofidioms(習(xí)語的變異形式)：oaddition增加.deletion刪除3oreplacement替換4oposition-shifting位置轉(zhuǎn)移5.dismembering分解Chapter10EnglishDictionaries英語字典（完整word版）《英