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Giventhelimitedunderstandingofwateruseinvariousregions,aswellasactualreductionsathome,theactualgeographicchangesinwaterusebecauseoftourismremainsomewhatuncertain.Exacerbatingthesefindingsisthattouristsmayoftenarriveduringthedryseason,whenrainfalldropstoaminimumandwateravailabilityisrestricted(e.g.Eurostat,2009;G?ssling,2001;WWF,2004).Forinstance,intheFrenchDépartmentofCharente-Maritime,wateruseisreportedtobe126percenthigheronthecoastand260percenthigherintheislandsofRéandOléroninJuly/Augustthanonannualaverage(IFEN,2000).Strongseasonalityincombinationwitharrivalpeaksduringdryseasonmightthusputconsiderablestrainonavailablewaterresources,particularlyingenerallydryregions.ThisinterrelationshipisshowninFig.3forZanzibar,Tanzaniawheretouristarrivalsarehighestwhenrainfalldropstoaminimum.Thisistheperiodwhenmostwaterisneededbythetouristindustryandrechargeoftheaquifersthroughrainislowest.SimilarrelationshipsbetweenwaterscarcityandtouristarrivalpeakshavebeenfoundintheMediterranean(Eurostat,2009).Whileoverallwaterusethusincreasesinthedryseason,percapitawateruseislikelytodecline,astherearewaterusesthathavetobemaintainedirrespectiveofguestnumbers(gardens,cleaning,pools).Adistinctionbetweenfixedandvariablewateruse,thelatterreferringtowaterusethatisrelatedtooccupancyrates(takingshowers,toiletuse,laundry),thusappearstobemeaningful.Fig.4exemplifieswaterconsumptionandoccupationrateratiosofhotelsinTunisia,indicatingthathigheroccupationratesreduceaveragedwaterconsumptionratespertouristperday.SimilarrelationshipswerealsofoundbyAntakayalietal.(2008),whofoundconsiderablyhigherwateruseperguestoccurredinlowoccupancyperiods.Inearlysummermonthswateruseperguestexceeds1000Lperguestperday,droppingto400Lwhenoccupancyratesarehigh.Giventhesefindings,alastconcerniswhethertourism-relatedwaterabstractionsaresustainable,andwhethertheseinterferewithotherusesorusers.Wheretourism-relatedfreshwaterdemandissignificant,thesectorcanaddconsiderablepressureonavailablefreshwaterresources,particularlywhentheseareconcentratedinregionswithfewornofossilwaterresources,lowaquiferrenewalrates,andfewornosurfacewatersources,suchasmanycoastalzonesandislands(e.g.G?ssling,2002b;RodriguezDiaz,Knox,&Weatherhead,2007).Insuchareas,tourism-relatedwaterconsumptionmayalsocompetewithlocaldemands.Forinstance,weightedaveragewateruseinvillagesontheeastcoastofZanzibarwasfoundtobeintheorderof48Lpercapitaperday,whereasweightedaveragewateruseinaccommodationinthisareawas685Lpertouristperday(G?ssling,2001).SimilarfiguresindicatinghigherwaterusebytouriststhanresidentshavealsobeenreportedforLanzarote,Spain,wheretouristwaterconsumptionisfourtimesthatofresidents(Medeazza,2004).Secondhometourismhasalsobeenrecognizedasplacingpressureonwatersuppliesandwaterquality,potentiallyleadingtoconflictsbetweenpermanentresidentsandtemporaryvisitors(Medina,1990;Müller,Hall,&Keen,2004).InastudyofMayneIsland,BritishColumbia,Thompson(2008)foundthatpermanentresidentsperceivedthatseasonalsecondhomeresidentsweredecreasingtheavailabilityandsustainabilityofwaterresources(Langumier&Ricou,1995).Competitionforwateralsooccursbetweeneconomicsectors,suchastourismandagriculture.InSpain,forinstance,thevalueaddedtowaterbytourismcanbe60timeshigherthanintheagriculturalsector(Auernheimer&González,2002;quotedinDownward&Taylor,2007),puttingtourisminapositiontooutcompeteagricultureforwater.Eurostat(2009:9)reportsthatintheMediterraneansummerhighseason,useconflictsexistbetweenagriculture,hydro-electricityproductionandhouseholdconsumption,withtouristfacilitiessometimesbeinggivenpriorityinthesupplyofwater.Evenmoreseriouscanbewateruseconflictsbetweencountries.Thecombinationofgrowingpopulations,demandsofwaterforindustryandtourism,andincreasinglyunpredictablewatersupplycombinedwithpre-existingpoliticalandreligioustensionsmakestheMiddlesEasteIsrael,Jordan,thePalestinianAuthority,Egypt,andpartsofLebanonandSyriaespeciallyvulnerabletowatersecurityissues(Hall,Timothy,&Duval,2004;Lipchin,Pallant,Saranga,&Amster,2007):ThewaterquestioniscrucialinIsrael,wherewaterresourcesareparticularlyscarce.ThemassiveuseofsurfacewaterpumpedfromtheSeaofGalileehasconsiderableenvironmentalandsocialimpacts,suchasdryingupoftheJordanandtheDeadSea,andtensionswithneighbouringJordan,whichalsodependsonthisresource(Eurostat,2009:21).Eventhoughnotinvestigatedinfurtherdetailinthisarticle,afinalaspectofrelevanceistourism’sinfluenceonwaterquality.Tourismcancontributetoimprovementsinwaterquality,forinstancewhensewagetreatmentsystemsarebuiltthatcanalsoprocesssofaruntreatedlocalwastewater,orwhenmunicipalitiesdecidetobuildtreatmentsystemstoimprovelocalwaterqualitytomeettouristexpectationsofpristineenvironmentalconditions.However,inmostregions,tourismappearstocontributetodecliningwaterquality.OneregionwherethelackofsewagetreatmentsystemsiswelldocumentedistheMediterranean.Scoullos(2003)reportsthatonly80percentoftheeffluentofresidentsandtouristsintheMediterraneaniscollectedinsewagesystemswiththeremainderbeingdischargeddirectlyorindirectlyintotheseaortoseptictanks.However,onlyhalfofthesewagenetworksareactuallyconnectedtowastewatertreatmentfacilitieswiththerestbeingdischargedintothesea.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeMediterraneanActionPlanPriorityActionsProgramme(UNEP/MAP/PAP,2001)estimatedthat48percentofthelargestcoastalcities(over100,000inhabitants)havenosewagetreatmentsystems,10percentpossessaprimarytreatmentsystem,38percentasecondarysystemandonlyfourpercentatertiarytreatmentsystem(Hall,2006).AnecdotalevidencesuggeststhatthedirectdischargeofwastewaterfromcoastaltownsandresortsintotheseaisalsopracticedinmanyothercountriesoutsidetheEuropeanUnion,andinparticularsmallislandstates(Hlavinek,Winkler,Marsalek,&Mahrikova,2011).Whilethisisnotdirectlyrelevanttofreshwaterquality,tourismcanthuscontributetoadeclineintheenvironmentalassetsitisdependentuponelostopportunitiestoapplyforaBlueFlagbeach-orsimilarbeachandseawaterqualitylabelcouldbeanexampleofthis.Theamountsofsewageandwastewatergeneratedbytourismcanbelarge,astourismisusuallyconcentratedincomparablysmallareas.Forinstance,Chan(2005)reportedthattheHongKonghotelsectorgeneratedmorethan12millionm3ofsewagein2003.DataprovidedbyAntakyalietal.(2008)forTurkeysuggeststhatapproximately40to50percentofthesuppliedwaterwasreturnedtothesewersystem.Tourismwastewatercontainsnutrients,aswellaschlorinatedswimmingpoolwaterandchemicalsusedtodissolvefatsandoils(Kuss,Graefe,&Vaske,1990;Lazarova,Hills,&Birks,2003).Itsimpactonecosystemswilldependonconcentrations,oceanconditions,andcurrents,butnutrientdischargesareparticularlycriticalinthetropics,wherecoastalwatersaretypicallyoligotrophic(D’Elia&Wiebe,1990).Positivechangesinnutrientcontenttriggerincreasedprimaryproductionandgrowthofmicroalgae,withpotentiallynegativeconsequencesforecosystemsandtourismactivities(e.g.Englebert,McDermott,&Kleinheinz,2008;Tomascik&Sander,1986).Insummarizingtheabovefindings,tourismisonlyrelevantinafewcountriesasasignificantfactorinnationalwateruse.Thevolumesabstractedbythesectorareusuallydwarfedbywateruseinagricultureandindustry.However,thesituationcanbedramaticallydifferentwhenwaterdemandisconcentratedintimeandspace,andwhentrendsinwaterconsumptionareconsidered.Further,waterdemandislikelytoincreaseinthefutureduetoclimatechangeanditsconsequencesforwateravailability,andincreasingwateruseduetogrowthintouristarrivals,higheraveragepertouristwaterconsumption,andmorewater-intenseactivities.Tourism’scontributiontowateruseshouldthusbeassessedcriticallyatthedestinationlevel,whereitmayoftenbeasignificantfactorinwater(over)use.Globally,indirectwateruseintourismislikelytobemorerelevantthandirectwateruseanddeservesmoreattentioninthefuture.Overall,resultswouldcallforwatermanagementmeasurestobeimplementedonabroadbasisintourism,particularlyindryregions.Theroleofclimatechangeinexacerbatingwaterscarcityinsomeregionsmaybeconsideredinthiscontextaswell.5.WatermanagementPrevioussectionshaveshownthattheimpactoftourismonfreshwateravailabilityandqualityisdependentonawiderangeoffactors,suchastherelativeabundanceandqualityofwaterintherespectivetourismregion,currentandanticipatedfuturewaterabstractionratesandtheshareofnon-consumptiveversusconsumptiveuses,theseasonalandspatialcharacterofwaterabstraction,competinguses,andthetreatmentofsewageandwastewater.Thismeansthatlocalorregionalwatercapacityassessmentsandwateruseauditsareneededtounderstandandputinperspectivetheroleoftourismasapotentiallyunsustainableagentinwateruse(forassessmentsseee.g.Bohdanowicz&Martinac,2007;O’Neill,Siegelbaum,&theRICEGroup2002;Cooleyetal.,2007).Oncesuchauditshavedetailedwaterconsumptionbyusecategory,recommendationscanbemade,whichbusinessesandlocalwateragenciescanimplementwithintheframeworkofregionalwateruseplans.Currently,wateruseinventoriesareusuallynotavailablefordestinations(regionsorcountries),eventhoughtheyareanimportantpreconditionforwatermanagement(Eurostats,2009).Inaddingcomplexity,effectsofclimatechangecanbemodeledforregionsandintegratedinwaterusescenariostoidentifysuitablestrategiestodealwithwaterstressinthefuture(foranexampleseeKent,Newnan,&Essex,2002;Essex,Kent,&Newnham,2004).Dependingonoutcomes,destinationmanagersandtourismstakeholderscanre-considertheirbusinessplans,includingperspectiveson(emerging)politics.Forinstance,intheEuropeanUnion,waterabstractionforgolfcourseswillbecomeincreasinglyregulatedthroughnationalpolicyimplementationoftheEuropeanWaterFrameworkDirective(EuropeanUnion,2000).Generally,watermanagementcanbebasedontwostrategies,i.e.demandsidemanagement(reducingwateruse),andsupplysidemanagement(increasingwaterprovisions)(Batesetal.,2008).5.1.DemandsidemanagementAlltouristfacilitiescansavesubstantialamountsofwater.Forinstance,Cooleyetal.(2007)estimatethathotelscanreduceindoorwaterconsumptionby30percentbyinstallingwater-efficientfixtures.Thereisevengreaterpotentialtoreduceoutdoorwaterdemand.SomewhatlowerestimatesofefficiencygainsareprovidedinO’Neill,SiegelbaumandtheRICEGroup(2002),suggestingaveragereductionpotentialsof10e20percent,thoughupto45percentinindividualhotels.Anumberofspecificmeasuresasdiscussedintheliteraturearepresentedinthefollowing.5.1.1.GardensWhereirrigationisanimportantfactorinwateruse,landscapingcanconsiderablyreduceirrigationneeds.Forinstance,Smithetal.(2009)suggestthatminimizingwaterconsumptioninlandscapingcanconserve30e50percentofwater.Measuresincludeinstallationofwatermeterstomonitorwateruse,selectionofdroughtresistantplantsandgrasses,mulchingofgardenbedstoreduceevaporation,installationofdripirrigationsystemswithelectroniccontrollersandmoisturesensors,andtheuseofrainorgreywaterforirrigation.Inmanylocationsuseofindigenousplantsforlandscapingpurposesalongwithappropriategardendesignsmayreducetheneedtoirrigatealtogether(Carmody,2007;Harris&Varga,1995;Thompson,2008).5.1.2.PoolsPoolscanberesponsibleforconsiderablewaterconsumption,andthemostimportantmeasureisconsequentlytoreducetheirsizeandtoavoidlargepool-landscapeswhendesigninghotels.Likewise,fountains,waterfallsorotherfeaturesincreasingevaporationshouldbeavoided.Poolnightcoverscanreduceevaporationinhotclimates,whiledrainagebarrierscancollectoverflowsanddirectthembacktothepool(Smithetal.,2009).Forenergy-andwaterconservationdetailsregardingheating,ventilationandairconditioning(HVAC),coolingtowers,laundryandotheraspectsofwateruseseee.g.G?sslingetal.(2011),O’Neill&SiegelbaumandtheRICEGroup(2002),Smithetal.(2009),andCooleyetal.(2007).5.1.3.GuestroomsIntourismfacilitiesandaccommodationguestrooms,toilets,showerheadsandfaucetflowrestrictorscanbereplacedwithefficientones.Giventheproportionofwateruserelatedtotoiletflushing,theuseofdualflush,reducedflushanddrycompostingtoiletscansignificantlyreducewaterusage(Carmody,2007;Kavanagh,2002;Thompson,2008).Forinstance,themostefficienttoiletscanuseaslittleas1Lfora“miniflush”,comparedtoupto12Lforoldermodels.Itisalsopossibletouserecycledwatertoflushtoiletsandurinals(Hillsetal.,2002;Lazarovaetal.,2003).Efficientandlowflowshowerheadscanuselessthan7Lperminute,comparedto13Lusedbyolderones.Faucetflowrestrictorscanreducewaterconsumptionbyhalfto2.5Lperminute(e.g.O’Neill,Siegelbaum,&theRICEGroup,2002).Usually,thesechangeswillbehighlyeconomical(Table4).5.1.4.KitchensKitchensusewaterforwashingandpreparingfood,thawingfoodandcleaningdishes.Changingcookingpractices,useofefficientdishwashersandpre-rinsesprayvalveswithsmallernozzlestoachievehigherwatervelocity,useofboilerlessfoodsteamersandefficientice-makers,aswellasflowcontrolregulatorsatsinksandbasinscansignificantlyreducewaterusewhilebeinghighlyeconomical(Smithetal.,2009).5.1.5.ActivitiesGolfcoursescanengageinsoilmoisturemeasurementstocontrolandoptimizewateruse(RodriguezDiazetal.,2007),reduceirrigationinexcessofwhattheturfneeds;considerspecificplayingsurfacerequirements(Balogh&Walker,1992);reduceplayingsurfaces,i.e.returntosmallergreensandmorenarrowfairways,acceptfairwaysandgreensthat“pitch”less;changeturfspeciestolesswaterdemandingorsalttolerantones(Ceron&Kovacs,1993);usegreywaterortreatedwaterforirrigation,andstopwateringaltogetherwhenandwhereitisnotindispensable(Ceron,1990;Hawtree,1983).Treatedwastewatercanalsobeusedforwateringparksandgardensaswellassnowmaking(Tonkovic&Jeffcoat,2002).5.1.6.ManagementManagementcanfocusoneducationalprogrammersforstaff,andinformativesignsonhowtosavewater,addressingtourists.Measuringwaterconsumptionandestablishingbenchmarks(Table5)canhelptobetterunderstandconsumptionpatterns.Withregardtoindirectwateruse,destinationscanseektoreduceaveragetraveldistancesandtoincreasetheaveragelengthofstay,aswellastoconsiderthechoiceoffoodsoffered.Water-savingmeasureswillalsohelptoreducesewage,forwhichtreatmentwithclosedorganicmatterflowcyclesshouldbethestandard(Appasamy,1993).Greateruseofrecycledwaterfornon-potableusesisalsoawayofreducingpressureonwatersuppliesandisattractingincreasedinterestfromwatermanagementauthoritiesandtourismbusinesses(Gikas&Tchobanoglous,2009a,2009b;Hillsetal.,2002;Lazarovaetal.,2003).Overall,reducingwaterusewillusuallybeeconomical.Fortuny,Soler,Cánovas,&Sánchez(2008)show,forinstance,thatmanywater-savingtechnologiessuchasflowlimitersontapsandshowers,orlavatorycisternswithreducedflushoptionshaveshortpaybacktimesbetween0.1and9.6years,makingthemeconomicallyattractive(seealsoTable4).However,aspointedoutbyPrettenthalerandDalla-Via(2007),lowwatercostsareapotentialbarriertoaction,whichhave,forinstance,beenquantifiedat0.6percentofturnoverinSteiermark,Austria(Prettenthaler&Dalla-Via,2007)or1.6percentofturnoverinMorocco(Eurostat,2009).Thisneedstobeconsideredinwaterpolitics,whichmayfocusonsteeringconsumptionthroughincreasesincosts,andwhereconsiderableincreasesinwaterpricesmaybedemandedtoraiseawarenessandtoengagestakeholderspro-activelyinwater-savingmeasures.5.1.7.SupplysidemanagementVarioustechnicaloptionsareavailabletoincreaseavailablewatercapacities.Forinstance,prospectingandextractinggroundwatercansupplyadditionalwaterinsituationswheresufficientwaterresourcesareavailablewhilefurtherattentioncanbegiventousingrecycledwaterfornon-potableurbanusessuchastoiletflushing(Lazarovaetal.,2003).Inthecaseofsmallislands,thismayalsoincludewaterabstractionfromfurtherinland,anddistributiontocoastalzonesthroughpipelines(e.g.Batesetal.,2008;G?ssling,2001).However,groundwaterisextremelyvulnerabletowaterpollutionasaresultofpoorsewageandwatertreatmentinfrastructure,whilemanycoastalaquifersarealsoincreasinglyvulnerabletosalinificationasaresultofsea-levelriseoftenassociatedwithgroundsubsidence,itselfduetoexcessiveuseofgroundwater.Reservoirsanddamscanincreasestoragecapacitiesforareasorentireregions,whilerainwaterstorageincisternscanbeaviablealternativeforsmallerhotels.Whereonlylimitedamountsofwaterareused,sealedplantbedscanbeusedtoremovenutrientsfromwastewater(cf.G?sslingetal.,2011:140e141).DesalinationandwastewaterreusehavebeenadvocatedasthebesttechnologicalalternativesforaridregiondestinationssuchasLisCabos,BajaCaliforniaSur,Mexico(Pombo,Brecada,&Aragón,2008).Desalinationmightcurrentlybethemostwidelyconsideredoptiontoenhancewaterresources,butitincreasesenergyconsumptionand,inmanyareasnotconnectedtothenationalgrid,thedependenceonimportsoffuelstorungenerators,leadingtoconsiderableadditionalemissionsofgreenhousegases.Desalinationisalsocostly,andcaninvolveenergyuseof3e12.5kWhofelectricity,correspondingtoemissionsof1e10kgCO2perm3ofwater,withlowervaluesreferringtostate-of-the-artdesalinationplants(Gude,Nirmalakhandan,&Deng,2010;Sadhwani&Veza,2008).Someformsofdesalination,suchasdistillation,caneveninvolveenergyuseof25e200kWhofelectricityperm3(Black&King,2009).Gudeetal.(2010)arguethatusingrenewableenergysourcesfordesalinationmaynotalwaysbeeconomical,particularlywheninvolvingsmall-scaleinstallations,whilecombinedgrid-renewableenergyplantscanproducefreshwaterwithloweremissionsandatcompetitivecosts.Bermudez-Contreras,Thomson,andInfield(2008)considerrenewableenergypowereddesalinationsystemsaseconomicallyviableinwater-scarceareas(forcostsseealsoKavanagh,2002).Moregenerally,thecostsofdealingwithcurrentandfuturewaterdemandsunderseriousclimatechangescenariosarelikelytobeconsiderable.DownwardandTaylor(2007),forinstance,reportthatmeetingsouthernSpain’santicipatedwaterrequirementsofanadditional1.063billionm3peryearwillcostV3.8billion.InAustralia,actualandanticipatedpaymentsfornationalwaterinitiatives,treatmentplantstosupplyrecycledwater,pipelinesanddroughtaidpaymentstocommunitieswilltotalUS$4.75billionintheperiod2001e2015(Batesetal.,2008).Globally,Parryetal.(2009a)estimatethatdealingwithwaterscarcitybecauseofclimatechangewillcostanadditionalUS$9e11billionperyear.WhileParryetal.(2009a)emphasisethatthisislikelytobeanunder-estimateofthecostsforadaptation,itisworthnotingthatthesumdoesnotincludecoststotourism-relatedlostassetssuchaslakes,riversandstreams,loweringorlossofamenityvalues,ordeterioratingwaterquality(e.g.Blakemore&Williams,2008;Englebertetal.,2008;Oliveira&Pereira,2008).Evenifonlyashareofthesecostswouldfallontourism,thesewouldneverthelessadvocateseriousclimatepolicytocurbemissionsandgreatereffortsinwatermanagementbybusinesses.Asoutlined,manytourismstakeholdersarelikelytoperceiveadaptationtoclimatechangeasbeinglesscostly,giventhattheyonlydealwithdirectoperationalcosts.Forinstance,newseawaterdesalinationplantscanproducefreshwateratcostsaslowasV0.45eV0.52perm3overthe15e20yeardesignlifeofthefacility(Albiacetal.,2003;citedinDownward&Taylor,2007).Thiswouldindicatethatadditionalcostsinwaterscarceareasforprovidingevenhighlevelsofwatertotouristsisnotlikelytoactasanincentiveforwaterconservationincoastalareas,aspertouristperdaycostsmayonaverageincreasebylessthanV1.Consequently,itisimportantfortourismstakeholderstounderstandthattheoverallcostsofinactionarefargreaterthantechnicaladaptationcosts,becausetheymayirreversiblyaffectimportanttouristassetsandcreateunstablesocio-economicsituationsinmanypartsoftheworld.6.DiscussionandconcludingremarksTourismdependstoaconsiderabledegreeonwater,whichisbotharesourceneededtoprovideservicesrelatedtobasichumanneeds,suchashygieneorfood,aswellasapreconditionforfuelproduction,andanassetessentialforawiderangeoftouristactivities,suchasswimminginlakesorpools,orgolfandwintersports.Furthermore,waterisacentralelementoftourismlandscapesinvariousforms,fromirrigatedhotelgardenstowhitewinterlandscapes,tolakesandstreamsembeddedinparklandscapes.Limitedwateravailability,poorwaterqualityormediaportrayalofawatercrisiscanconsequentlydogreatharmtotheimageoftourismdestinations(Hall,2010;Hall&Stoffels,2006).Incomparisontowateruseinothereconomicsectors,tourismisusuallylessrelevant,becauseinvirtuallyallcountriesoftheworld,agriculturedwarfstourism-relatedwaterconsumption.However,insomecountries,aswellasregionally,tourismcanbethemainfactorinwaterconsumption.Insuchareas,itcanincreasedirectpressureonalreadydiminishedwaterresourcesandcompetewithothereconomicsectorsaswellasthesubsistenceneedsoflocalpopulations(Thiel,2010).Inaddition,tourismcanalsocontributetoadeclineindownstreamordestinationwaterqualityandpotablewatersuppliesasaresultofpoorornotreatmentofwastewater,whichthenentersaquifersandthewatersystem(Dillon,1997;Kocasoy,Mutlu,&AylinZerenAlag?z,2008).Significantly,inanumberofincreasinglywater-scarceregionssuchastheMediterranean,theconcentrationoftourismintimeandspaceasaresultofseasonaltouristdemand,canplaceenormouspressuresondomesticandindustrialwatersuppliesaswellaswastewaterinfrastructure,oftenataperiodwhentheyareleastabletocope.Suchsituationsalsohighlighttheimportanceofanalysingtourism’swaterdemandsatanappropriatetemporalandspatialscaleratherthanjustrelyingonassessmentsconductedonanannualornationalbasis.Resultsprovidedinthisarticlesuggestthatdirectwateruseintourismisanythingfrom80to2000Lpertouristperday,withatendencyforlarger,resort-stylehotelstousesignificantlymorewaterthansmaller,lessluxuriousestablishments.Dependingongeographicallocationandenvironmentaland/orclimateconditions,themainwater-consumingfactorsareirrigatedgardens,swimmingpools,spaandwellnessfacilities,aswellasgolfcourses,followedbycoolingtowers(whereused),guestroomsandkitchens.However,whiledirectwateruseismorerelevantforwatermanagementinthedestination,indirectwateruseisresponsibleforagreatercontributiontotheoverallamountofwaterused.Inparticular,foodandfuelproductionhavebeenshowntohavecomparablylargewaterfootprints:transporttothedestinationalonecanmorethandoubledirectwateruse.Foodis,perhaps,themostrelevantfactorinwateruse,thoughpeopleeatwhethertheytravelornot,andtheadditiontourismmakestowaterusethroughtheconsumptionofhigher-orderfoodisnotasyetidentified.Giventheglobalgrowthintourism,thetrendtowardshigherstandardaccommodationandmorewater-intenseactivities,whicharelikelytocoincidewithchangesintheglobalclimatesystemleadingtodecliningwaterresourcesinmanyregions,pressureonwaterresourcesandrelatedwaterconflictsareboundtoincreaseinmanydestinations.Asaconsequence,tourismdevelopmentinmanyareasoftheworldmaybecomelesssustainableornolongerfeasible.Thismaybeduetoforegoneopportunitiestocarryoutcertaintourismactivities,decliningwaterlevelsorlackoffreshwateravailability,costsassociatedwithprovisionsoffreshwater,ordecliningwaterquality.Impactswillultimatelydependonseveralfactors,includingtherelativescarcityoffreshwaterintourismareas,alsowithregardtoseasonalaspects,competitionwithothereconomicsectorssuchasagriculture(e.g.Downward&Taylor,2007),institutionalcontextssuchaswaterpolicies,aswellasthestructureofthewaterindustry(profitorsocialbenefits)andofthetouristindustry(smallguesthousesorlargeresorthotels).Suchsituationswillclearlyrequireamoreintegratedapproachtotourism’sroleinwatermanagementatacatchmentlevelthanwhathashithertobeenthecase(Hall&H?rk?nen,2006;Matias,Gago,&Boavida,2008).Furthermore,theincreasingcompetitionbetweentourismandotherusers,includingthewaterrightsandthefoodandwatersecurityoflocalpeopleinanumberofdestinationsraisesfundamentalquestionsabouttheethicsandpoliticsofwateraccess.Inordertoadapttoinevitablechangesinwateravailability,aswellastomitigateitsowncontributiontoclimatechangeanditspressureonlimitedwaterresources,tourismneedstoengageinenergyandwatermanagement,focusingonpolicy(e.g.compliancewith