2010-2019考研英語二新題型

1、2010Copying Birds May Save Aircraft FuelBoth Boeing and Airbus have trumpeted the efficiency of their newest aircraft. The 787 and350 respectively . Their clever designs and lightweight composites certainly make a difference .But a group of researchers at Stanford University , led by Ilan Kroo , has

2、 suggested that airlinescould take a more naturalistic approach to cutting jet-fuel use and it would not require them to buynew aircraft.The answer, says Dr Kroo , lies with birds . Since 1914, scientists have known that birdsflying in formation-a V-shape-expend less energy. The air flowing over a b

3、ird wsings curlsupwards behind the wingtips . a phenomenon known as upwash. Other birds flying in the upwashexperience reduced drag, and spend less energy propelling themselves . Peter Lissaman, anaeronautics expert who was formerly at Caltech and the University of Southern California ,hassuggested

4、that a formation of 25 birds might enjoy a range increase of 71%.When applied to aircraft, the principles are not substantially different . Dr Kroo and his teammodeled what would happen if three passenger jets departing from Los Angeles, San Franciscoand I as Vegas were to assemble over Utah, assume

5、 an inverted V-formation occasionally changeplaces so all could have a turn in the most favourable positions , and proceed to London. Theyfound that the aircraft consumed as much as 15% less fuel (coupled with a reduction incarbon-dioxide output). Nitrogen-oxide emissions during the cruising portion

6、s of the flight fell byaround a quarter.There are , of course , knots to be worked out . One consideration is safety , or at least theperception of it . Would passengers feel comfortable travelling in companion? Dr Kroo points outthat the aircraft could be separated by several nautical miles , and w

7、ould not be in the intimategroupings favoured by display teams like the Red Arrows , A passenger peering out of thewindow might not even see the other planes. Whether the separation distances involved wouldsatisfy air-traffic-control regulations is another matter, although a working group at theInte

8、rnational Civil Aviation Organisation has included the possibility of formation flying in ablueprint for new operational guidelines.It remains to be seen how weather conditions affect the air flows that make formation flightmore efficient. In zones of increased turbulence, the planes wakes will deca

9、y more quickly andthe effect will diminish. Dr Kroo says this is one of the areas his team will investigate further. Itmight also be hard for airlines to co-ordinate the departure times and destinations of passengeraircraft in a way that would allow them to gain from formation flight. Cargo aircraft

10、, in contrast,might be easier to reschedule, as might routine military flight.As it happens, America asrmed forces are on the on case already. Earlier this year thecountry Dsefence Advanced Research Projects Agency announced plans to pay Boeing toinvestigate formation flight, though the programme ha

11、s yet to begin . There are reports that some1military aircraft flew in formation when they were low on fuel during the Second World War ,butDr Lissaman says they are unsubstantiated. “ Myfather was an RAF pilot and my cousin theskipper of a Lancaster lost over Berlin, ” he adds. So he should know.41

12、. Findings of the Stanford University researchers will promote the sales of new Boeing andAirbus aircraft.42. The upwash experience may save propelling energy as well as reducing resistance.43. Formation flight is more comfortable because passengers can not see the other plans.44. The role that weat

13、her plays in formation flight has not yet been clearly defined.45. It has been documented that during World War , America s armed forces once triedformation flight to save fuel.2011Leading doctors today weigh in on the debate over the governments role in promoting publichealth by demanding that mini

14、sters impose “ fat taxes ” on unhealthy food and-i-ntroduce cigarettestyle warnings to children about the dangers of a poor diet.The demands follow comments made last week by the health secretary, Andrew Lansley,who insisted the government could not force people to make healthy choices and promised

15、to freebusinesses from public health regulations.But senior medical figures want to stop fast-food outlets opening near schools, restrictadvertising of products high in fat, salt or sugar, and limit sponsorship of sports events by fastfoodproducers such as McDonalds.They argue that government action

16、 is necessary to curb Britains addiction to unhealthy foodand help halt spiraling rates of obesity, diabetes and heart disease.Professor Terence Stephenson,president of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, said that the consumption ofunhealthy food should be seen to be just as damaging

17、 as smoking or excessive drinking.“ Thirty years ago, it would have been inconceivable to have imagined a ban on smoking inthe workplace or in pubs, and yet that is what we have now.Are we willing to be just ascourageous in respect of obesity? I would suggest that we should be, ” said the leader of

18、the UKschildrens doctors.Lansley has alarmed health campaigners by suggesting he wants industry rather thangovernment to take the lead. He said that manufacturers of crisps and candies could play a centralrole in the Chang for Life campaign, the centerpiece of government efforts to boost healthy eat

19、ingand fitness. He has also criticized the celebrity chef Jamie Olivers high-profile attempt to improveschool lunches in England as an example of how “ lecturing ” people was not the best way tochange their behavior.Stephenson suggested potential restrictions could include banning TV advertisements

20、forfoods high in fat, salt or sugar before 9 pm and limiting them on billboards or i n cinemas. “ If we2were really bold, we might even begin to think of high-calorie fast food in the same way ascigarettes by setting strict limits on advertising, product placement and sponsorship of sportsevents，”he

21、 said.Such a move could affect firms such as McDonalds, which sponsors the youth coachingscheme run by the Football Association. Fast food chains should also stop offering “inducements ”such as toys, cute animals and mobile phone credit to lure young customers, Stephenson said.Professor Di nesh Bhug

22、ra, president of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, said: “If childreare taught about the impact that food has on their growth, and that some things can harm, at leastinformation is available up front. ”He also argues councils to impose -food-f“reefazsot nes ” around schools andhospitals areas with

23、in which takeaways cannot open.A department of Health spokesman said: “We need to create a new vision for public healthwhere all of society works together to get healthy and live longer. This includes creating a newresponsibility, deal with business, built on social responsibly, not state regulation

24、. Later this year,we will publish a white paper setting out exactly how we will achieve this. ”The food industry will be alarmed that such senior doctors back such radical moves,especially the call to use some of the tough tactics that have been deployed against smoking overthe last decade.A “fat ta

25、xes ” should be imposed -ofonofdasptroducers such asMcDonald sB the government should ban fast-food outlets in the neighborhood ofschools46. Andrew Lansley held thatC “l(fā)ecturing ” was an effective way to improve school lunches inEngland47. Terence Stephenson agreed thatD cigarette-style warnings sho

26、uld be introduced to children about thedangers of a poor diet48. Jamie Oliver seemed to believe thatE the producers of crisps and candies could contribute significantly tothe Change4Life campaign49. Dinesh Bhugra suggested thatF parents should set good examples for their children by keeping ahealthy

27、 diet at home50. A Department of Health spokesperson G the government should strengthen the sense of responsibility amongproposed that businesses2012“Universal history, the history of what man has accomplished in this world, is at bottom the3History of the Great Men who have worked here, ” wrote the

28、 Victorian Thomas Carlyle. Well, notany more it is not.Suddenly, Britain looks to have fallen out with its favorite historical form. This could be nomore than a passing literary craze, but it also points to a broader truth about how we now approachthe past: less concerned with learning from forefath

29、ers and more interested in feeling their pain.Today, we want empathy, not inspiration.From the earliest days of the Renaissance, the writing of history meant recounting theexemplary lives of great men. In 1337, Petrarch began work on his rambling writing De VirisIllustribus On Famous Men , highlight

30、ing the virtus (or virtue) of classical heroes. Petrarchcelebrated their greatness in conquering fortune and rising to the top. This was the biographicaltradition which Niccolo Machiavelli turned on its head. In The Prince , he championed cunning,ruthlessness, and boldness, rather than virtue, mercy

31、 and justice, as the skills of successful leaders.Over time, the attributes of greatness shifted. The Romantics commemorated the leadingpainters and authors of their day, stressing the uniqueness of the artist s personal experienthan public glory. By contrast, the Victorian author Samuel Smiles wrot

32、e Self-Helpas a catalogueof the worthy lives of engineers, industrialists and explorers. “ The valuable examples which thfurnish of the power of self-help, of patient purpose, resolute working and steadfast integrity,issuing in the formation of truly noble and manly character, exhibit, ” wrote Smile

33、s, “ what it is inthe power of each to accomplish for himself. ” His biographies of James Watt, Richard Arkwrightand Josian Wedgwood were held up as beacons to guide the working man through his difficultlife.This was all a bit bourgeois for Thomas Carlyle, who focused his biographies on the trulyher

34、oic lives of Martin Luther, Oliver Cromwell and Napoleon Bonaparte. These epochal figuresrepresented lives hard to imitate, but to be acknowledged as possessing higher authority than meremortals.Not everyone was convinced by such bombast. “ The history of all hitherto existing society isthe history

35、of class struggles, ” wrote Marx and Engels in The Communist Manifesto. For them,history did nothing, it possessed no i mmense wealth nor waged battles: “ It is man, real, living manwho does all that. ” And history should be the story of the masses and their record of struggle, Assuch, it needed to

36、appreciate the economic realities, the social contexts and power relations inwhich each epoch stood. For: “Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as theyplease; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstancesdirectly found, given and transmitte

37、d from the past. ”This was the tradition which revolutionized our appreciation of the past. In place of ThomasCarlyle, Britain nurtured Christopher Hill, EP Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. History frombelow stood alongside biographies of great men. Whole new realms of understanding fromgender to race to

38、 cultural studies were opened up as scholars unpicked the multiplicity of lostsocieties. And it transformed public history too: downstairs became just as fascinating as upstairs.A emphasized the virtue of classical heroes.51. Petrarch B highlighted the public glory of the leadingartists.52. Niccolo

39、Machiavellli C focused on epochal figures whose lives werehard to imitate.453. Samuel Smiles D opened up new realms of understanding thegreat men in history.54. Thomas Carlyle E held that history should be the story of themasses and their record of struggle.55. Marx and Engels F dismissed virtue as

40、unnecessary for successfulleaders.G depicted the worthy lives of engineerindustrialists and explorers2013A Shopkeepers are your friendsB Remember to treat yourselfC Stick to what you needD Live like a peasantE Balance your dietF Planning is everythingG Waste not, want notThe hugely popular blog the

41、Skint Foodie chronicles how Tony balances his love of goodfood with living on benefits. After bills, Tony has 60 a week to spend, 40 of which goes onfood, but 10 years ago he was earning 130，000 a year working in corporate communicationsand eating at Londons best restaurants at least twice a week. T

42、hen his marriage failed, his careerburned out and his drinking became serious. “ The community mental health team saved my life.And I felt like that again, to a certain degree, when people responded to the blog so well. It gaveme the validation and confidence that Id lost. But its still a day-by- da

43、y thing. ” Now hes living ina council flat and fielding offers from literary agents. Hes feeling positive, but hell carry onblogging not about eating as cheaply as you can “ there are so many peoeplin a much worsestate, with barely any money to spend on food b”uteating well on a budget. Heres his ad

44、vice foreconomical foodies.41. _Impulsive spending isnt an option, so plan your weeks menu in advance, making shoppinglists for your ingredients in their exact quantities. I have an Excel template for a week of breakfast,lunch and dinner. Stop laughing: its not just cost effective but helps you bala

45、nce your diet. Itsalso a good idea to shop daily instead of weekly, because, being-human, youll sometimes changeyour mind about what you fancy.42. _This is where supermarkets and their anonymity come in handy. With them, theres not thesame embarrassment as when buying one carrot in a little greengro

46、cer. And if you plan properly,youll know that you only need, say, 350g of shin of beef and six rashers of bacon, not whateverweight is prepacked in the supermarket chiller.43. _You may proudly claim to only have frozen peas in the freezer thats not good enough.Mine is filled with leftovers, bread, s

47、tock, meat and fish. Planning ahead should eliminate wastage,5but if you have surplus vegetables youll do a vegetable soup, and all fruits threatening to “ gooff ”will be cooked or juiced.56. _Everyone says this, but it really is a top tip for frugal eaters. Shop at butchers, delis and fish-sellers

48、regularly, even for small things, and be super friendly. Soon youll feel comfortable askingif theyve any knuckles of ham for soups and stews, or beef bones, chicken carcasses and fishheads for stock which, more often than not, theyll let you have for free.57. _You wont be eating out a lot, but save

49、your pennies and once every few months treatyourself to a set lunch at a good restaurant 1.75 a week for three months givesyou 21 more than enough for a threecourse lunch at Michelinstarred Arbutus. Its 16.95there or 12.99 for a large pizza from Dominos: I know which Id rather eat.2014Emerging in th

50、e late Sixties and reaching a peak in the Seventies, Land Art was one of arange of new forms, including Body Art, Performance Art, Action Art and Installation Art, whichpushed art beyond the traditional confines of the studio and gallery. Rather than portrayinglandscape, land artists used the physic

51、al substance of the land itself as their medium.The British Land Art, typified by Longs piece, was not only more domestically scaled, but alot quirkier than its American counterpart. Indeed, while you might assume that an exhibition ofLand Art would consist only of records of works rather than the w

52、orks themselves, Longsphotograph of his work is the work. Since his “ action ” is in the past, the photograph is its soleembodiment.That might seem rather an obscure point, but it sets the tone for an exhibition that contains alot of blackandwhite photographs and relatively few natural objects.Long

53、is Britains bestknown Land Artist and his Stone Circle, a perfect ring of purplish rocksfrom Portishead beach laid out on the gallery floor, represents the elegant, rarefied side of theform. The Boyle Family, on the other hand, stands for its dirty, urban aspect. Comprising artistsMark Boyle and Joa

54、n Hills and their children, they recreated random sections of the Britishlandscape on gallery walls. Their Olaf Street Study, a square of brick-strewn waste ground, is oneof the few works here to embrace the commonplaceness that characterises most of our experienceof the landscape most of the time.P

55、arks feature, particularly in the earlier works, such as John Hilliards very funny Across thePark, in which a long-haired stroller is variously smiled at by a pretty girl and unwittinglyassaulted in a sequence of images that turn out to be different parts of the same photograph.Generally however Bri

56、tish land artists preferred to get away from towns, gravitating towardslandscapes that are traditionally considered beautiful such as the Lake District or the WiltshireDowns. While it probably wasnt apparent at the time, much of this work is permeated by a spiritof romantic escapism that the likes o

57、f Wordsworth would have readily understood. Derek Jarmansyellowtinted film Towards Avebury, a collection of long, mostly still shots of the Wiltshirelandscape, evokes a tradition of English landscape painting stretching from Samuel Palmer to PaulNash.In the case of Hamish Fulton, you cant help feeling that the Scottish artist has simply found away of making his love of walking pay. A typical work, such as Seven Days, consists of a single6beautiful black-and-white photograph taken on an epic walk,