英語語言學(xué)教程句子PPT課件

1、1 Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. 句法學(xué)研究組詞成句的規(guī)則，研究句子內(nèi)部組成成分間的關(guān)系。第1頁/共101頁2 Syntactic relations can be analysed into three kinds: rela

2、tions of position relations of substitutability relations of co-occurrence1. Syntactic relations（句法關(guān)系）第2頁/共101頁31.1 Relations of Position （位置關(guān)系） For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The

3、 boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object第3頁/共101頁4 Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungramma

4、tical or nonsensical at all. For example,第4頁/共101頁5 The boy kicked the ball *Boy the ball kicked the *The ball kicked the boy The teacher saw the students The students saw the teacher第5頁/共101頁6 Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（橫組合關(guān)系） observed by F. de S

5、aussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations. 第6頁/共101頁7 Word order is one of the basic ways to classify languages in the world: SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS. English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order. 第7頁/共101

6、頁81.2 Relation of Substitutability （替換關(guān)系） The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. The _ smiles. man boy girl第8頁/共101頁9 It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly subs

7、titutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man The tallest boy smiles.pretty girl yesterday. He went therelast week. the day before.第9頁/共101頁10 This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（縱聚合關(guān)系）by Hjemslev（葉爾姆斯列夫） To make it more unders

8、tandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations. 第10頁/共101頁111.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同現(xiàn)關(guān)系/縱橫關(guān)系） It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. For

9、 instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase. 第11頁/共101頁12 Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations. 第12頁/共101頁132. Grammatical construction and its constituents 2.1 Grammatical

10、 Construction GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION （語法結(jié)構(gòu)體）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains

11、.第13頁/共101頁14lOn the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties. lThe external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is rele

12、vant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.lFor instance, the different terms such as clausal type, phrasal type are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively. 第14頁/共101頁1515Subject +Verb +Object (clausal type)Mary (subject)ate (verb)an apple (object).Determiner

13、+Noun (phrasal type)this (determiner)edition (noun)7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第15頁/共101頁1616 In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The +

14、 girl + is + giggling. It is the construction in this sense that can be analysed into constituents. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第16頁/共101頁172.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: the girl (NP) ate the apple (VP

15、) the girl ate the apple (S)第17頁/共101頁1818 Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, in the case of the example above, B (the girl) and C (ate the apple), are joined to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (“S” , here a sentence ), t

16、hen B and C are said to be immediate constituents of A. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第18頁/共101頁1919 A (Sentence) B CThe girl ate the apple7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第19頁/共101頁2020 This tree contains three Nodes. The top-most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C. B and C are daughters of the same mot

17、her, and so we refer to them as sister nodes. The simple tree in the above represents a constituent of category A which is composed of two parts, one of category B and the other of category C, occurring in that order. 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第20頁/共101頁2121 To dismantle a grammatical construction in this

18、way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANALYSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached7

19、/6/2022LINGUISTICS第21頁/共101頁2222 When a tree diagram is used to represent the constituent structure of a grammatical unit (e.g. a phrase or sentence), syntactic categories are used to label the nodes; the most common of these are listed in the following: 7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第22頁/共101頁2323Word-levelPh

20、rasalN= nounA=adjectiveV=verbP=prepositionDet=determinerAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clause7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第23頁/共101頁24Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)The girl ate the apple第24頁/共101頁2525Tree diagram S NP VP

21、Det N V NP Det NThe girl ate the apple7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第25頁/共101頁2626Bracketing In contrast to tree diagram, BRACKETING is not so common, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent structure of a grammatical unit. (The) (girl) (ate) (the) (apple) The girl ate the apple7/6/2022L

22、INGUISTICS第26頁/共101頁27Advantages of IC Analysis To demonstrate the internal structure of a sentence clearly To reveal the ambiguitiesLeave the book on the shelf.第27頁/共101頁28 Leave the book on the shelf Leave the book on the shelf第28頁/共101頁292.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions (向心結(jié)構(gòu)和離心結(jié)構(gòu)) Th

23、e syntactic constructions analysed are of two main types: endocentric and exocentric constructions, depending on their distribution and the relation between their constituents. 第29頁/共101頁3030 ENDOCENTRIC construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its

24、constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.其整體功能與其某個或某些組成成分（單個詞或詞組）相同或相似，這個詞組是整體的核心或中心。因此向心結(jié)構(gòu)也叫做中心結(jié)構(gòu) 。 Typical endocentric constructions are noun phrases (the three small children), verb phrases(will have been leaving), adjective phrases (really very l

25、ate).7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第30頁/共101頁31第31頁/共101頁32 The head is not necessarily the last constituent. It may occur at the beginning. the book on the shelfthe man about whom Ive been talkingwalked away immediatelyhot beyond enduranceafraid of the talk第32頁/共101頁33 EXOCENTRIC construction refers to a grou

26、p of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including the basic sentence, the prepositional phrase, the predicate (verb + object) construction, and the connect

27、ive (be + complement) construction.第33頁/共101頁34 The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.) He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.) John

28、seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)第34頁/共101頁35 朱德熙在語法答問中指出： 布龍姆菲爾德（L.Bloomfield）把句法結(jié)構(gòu)分成兩類：至少有一個直接成分跟整體的語法功能相同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫“向心結(jié)構(gòu)”。向心結(jié)構(gòu)里跟整體的功能相同的直接成分是這個向心結(jié)構(gòu)的核心（head）。所有的直接成分都跟整體的語法功能不同的結(jié)構(gòu)叫離心結(jié)構(gòu)。（L.Bloomfield，Language，194-195頁）例如偏正結(jié)構(gòu)（包括定語加中心語的名詞性偏正結(jié)構(gòu)和狀語加中心語的謂詞性偏正結(jié)構(gòu)）的語法功

29、能跟它的后一個直接成分（中心語）相同，述賓結(jié)構(gòu)和述補結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能都跟它的前一個直接成分（述語）相同，所以都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能跟它的兩個直接成分（主語和謂語）都不一樣，所以是離心結(jié)構(gòu)。所有由虛詞組成的句法結(jié)構(gòu)如介詞結(jié)構(gòu)，“的”字結(jié)構(gòu)等等也都是離心結(jié)構(gòu)。聯(lián)合結(jié)構(gòu)的語法功能跟它的每一項組成成分都相同，是一種多核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，布龍姆菲爾德管它叫并列式向心結(jié)構(gòu)（co-ordinative endocentric construction）。第35頁/共101頁36 布氏向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論的一些問題：1 布氏的理論本身并不是完美無缺的。這一點布氏本人已經(jīng)有所認識。并非所有的向心結(jié)構(gòu)其整體功能

30、都與中心語或核心完全一致，因此“向心/離心”結(jié)構(gòu)理論即使就英語來說也不是一種能夠覆蓋所有合成短語的分析模式。2 可以這樣理解向心/離心結(jié)構(gòu)理論：在一個AB結(jié)構(gòu)體中，如果AB的整體功能和其中的某個成分一致，那AB就是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。否則為離心結(jié)構(gòu)。跟整體功能一致的成分就是結(jié)構(gòu)核心。這個理解在漢語中碰到了麻煩，“雷鋒精神”成為雙核心的向心結(jié)構(gòu)，“這本書的出版”中“出版”變成了結(jié)構(gòu)核心。如果從結(jié)構(gòu)上來考慮，所有的結(jié)構(gòu)都是向心結(jié)構(gòu)。如果從功能上來考慮就有兩種情況，一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核心和整體功能一致的結(jié)構(gòu)，另一種是結(jié)構(gòu)核心和整體功能不一致的結(jié)構(gòu)。主謂短語、動賓短語在結(jié)構(gòu)上都是向心的，但是在功能上則不是向心的。至于叫

31、他什么，那就無所謂了。第36頁/共101頁372.4 Coordination and Subordination Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordinationsubordination第37頁/共101頁38Coordination 并列結(jié)構(gòu) Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by gro

32、uping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or . These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. 第38頁/共101頁39 Coordin

33、ation of NPs: NP the lady or NP the tiger Coordination of VPs: VP go to the library and VP read a book Coordination of PPs: PP down the stairs and PP out the door Coordination of APs: AP quite expensive and AP very beautiful Coordination of Ss: S John loves Mary and S Mary loves John too.第39頁/共101頁4

34、0 In a coordinate sentence, two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads of a higher S. One property coordination reveals is that there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. NP A man, a woman, a boy, a cat and a dog got into the

35、 car. Therefore, coordination occupies its own place in the creativity of language: i.e.recursiveness第40頁/共101頁41Subordination 從屬結(jié)構(gòu) Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually

36、a constituent of the other. The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently, they can be called modifiers. 第41頁/共101頁42 two dogs Head (My brother) can drink (wine). Head Swimming in the lake (is fun). Head (The pepper was) hot beyond endurance. Head第42頁/共101頁43Subordinate

37、clauses Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses: complement clauses adjunct (or adverbial) clauses relative clauses第43頁/共101頁44 John believes that the airplane was invented by an Irishman. (complement clause) Elizabeth opened her presents b

38、efore John finished his dinner. (adverbial clause) The woman that I love is moving to the south. (relative clause) 第44頁/共101頁453. Syntactic Function 句法功能 The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Names of fu

39、nctions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc. 第45頁/共101頁463.1 Subject In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case. The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater an

40、d filius in the following examples. pater filium amat (the father loves the son) patrum filius amat (the son loves the father) 第46頁/共101頁47 In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.

41、 This definition seems to work for these sentences: Mary slapped John. A dog bit Bill. 第47頁/共101頁48 but is clearly wrong in the following examples: John was bitten by a dog. John underwent major heart surgery. In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “gra

42、mmatical subject” (John) and “l(fā)ogical subject” (a dog). 第48頁/共101頁49 Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic). Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as Bill is a very crafty fellow. but fails in others, such as (Jack is pretty reliable,

43、 but) Bill I dont trust. As for Bill, I wouldnt take his promises very seriously. 第49頁/共101頁50 All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences. The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject. What ch

44、aracteristics do subjects have? Word order Pro-forms Agreement with verb Content questions Tag questions第50頁/共101頁51Word order 詞序 Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement: Sally collects stamps. *Collects Sally stamps.第51頁/共101頁52Pro-forms The first and third person pronouns in English

45、appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: He loves me. I love him. We threw stones at them. They threw stones at us. 第52頁/共101頁53Agreement with the verb In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third pe

46、rson subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb: She angers him. They anger him. She angers them. 第53頁/共101頁54Content questions If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest o

47、f the sentence remains unchanged, as in John stole the Queens picture from the British Council. Who stole the Queens picture from the British council? 第54頁/共101頁55 What would John steal, if he had the chance? What did John steal from the British Council? Where did John steal the Queens picture from?

48、nWhen any other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.第55頁/共101頁56Tag question A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element

49、in the sentence. John loves Mary, doesnt he? Mary loves John, doesnt she? *John loves Mary, doesnt she?第56頁/共101頁573.2 Predicate Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. It

50、 usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject. The boy is running. (process) Peter broke the glass. (action) Jane must be mad! (state) The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.第57頁/共101頁583.3 Object Traditionally, object may refer to th

51、e “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object. Mother bought a doll. Mother gave my sister a doll. IO DO 第58頁/共101頁59 In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative c

52、ase (與格) for indirect object. In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns). Mother gave a doll to my sister. John kicked me.第59頁/共101頁60 Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it c

53、an become subject in a passive transformation. John broke the glass. The glass was broken by John. Peter saw Jane. Jane was seen by Peter. Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice. He died last week. The m

54、atch lasted three hours. He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)第60頁/共101頁61613.4 The Relation between Classes and Functions Classes and functions determine each other, but not in any one-to-one relation. A class item can perform several functions. For instance,

55、 a noun or a nominal phrase can function as the subject, object, modifier, adverbial and complement of a sentence. A function can also be fulfilled by several classes. For instance, the subject of a sentence can be realized by a noun, pronoun, numeral, infinitive, etc.7/6/2022LINGUISTICS第61頁/共101頁62

56、4. Category 范疇The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units: Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice第62頁/共101頁634.1 Number 數(shù) Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displayi

57、ng such contrasts as singular, dual, plural,(單數(shù)，雙數(shù)，復(fù)數(shù)) etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs. Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.第63頁

58、/共101頁64 In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles. le cheval royal (the royal horse) les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)第64頁/共101頁654.2 Gender 性 Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. f

59、or the analysis of word classes. Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases. For instance, in Latin, ignis fire is masculine, while flamma flame is feminine. 第65頁/共101頁66 English gender contrast can only be obser

60、ved in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type. he: she: it prince: princess author: authoress第66頁/共101頁67 In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles. beau cadeau (fine gift) belle maison (fine house) Le cadeau est beau. (The gi