戴煒棟簡(jiǎn)明語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程配套筆記-自己整理版

Chapter1IntroductionWhatislinguistics什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)ThedefinitionoflinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(對(duì)語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行的科學(xué)Linguistics研究)Processoflinguisticstudy:Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;Hypothesesareformulated;{③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.ThescopeoflinguisticsGenerallinguistics普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)：thestudyoflanguageasawhole從整體研究:thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonimediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified):isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning):thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarcombinedtoformwords):thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences):thestudyofmeaninginabstraction:thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseSociolinguistics：thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyPsycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemindAppliedlinguistics:theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguagteachingandlearningAnthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;mathematicallinguistics;computationallinguistics自己er際phoneticsI.自己er際phoneticsI.Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics①Prescriptivevs.①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive規(guī)定性與描寫(xiě)性&②Synchronicvs.Diachronic 共時(shí)性與歷時(shí)性（現(xiàn)代英語(yǔ)多研究共時(shí)性）ThedescriptionofaThedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointThedescriptionofaThedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.③Speechandwriting言語(yǔ)與文字Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten④Langueandparole語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse（sociological）Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity（指一個(gè)話語(yǔ)社團(tuán)所有成員共有的語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)）Parole:referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse（指語(yǔ)言在實(shí)際運(yùn)用中的實(shí)現(xiàn)）⑤Competenceandperformance 語(yǔ)言能力與語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky（psychological）Competence:theidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.（理想的語(yǔ)言使| 工 iLCbLLLCbLLLCbLLLCbLLLCbLLCLLLLCLCLLCLCLLCLCLLCLCLLCLCLLCLCLLnL^^^'CLCLLCLCLLCLrgLCLrsLLLCgLLLCgLLLCgLLLmLLLLm'LLLm'LLLm'LLLm'CL.^^^bL—J^^^—4用者關(guān)于語(yǔ)言規(guī)則方面的知識(shí)）Performance:theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticscommunication.（這種知識(shí)在語(yǔ)言交流中的具體實(shí)現(xiàn)）Whatislanguage什么是語(yǔ)言[A]ThedefinitionoflanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.（語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)具有任意性、用于人類交流的語(yǔ)音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。）System:combinedtogetheraccordingtorules（根據(jù)規(guī)則組合在一起）Arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweenalinguisticsymbolandwhatthesymbolstandsfor（語(yǔ)言符號(hào)和符號(hào)所代表的事物之間沒(méi)有內(nèi)在的必然的聯(lián)系）

Vocal：theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages（所有語(yǔ)言的首要媒介都是聲音）Human:languageishuman-specific（語(yǔ)言是人類所獨(dú)有的）[B]Designfeatures（uniqueproperties）:thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication（識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別于任何動(dòng)物交際系統(tǒng)的本質(zhì)特征）?①Arbitrariness（任意性）Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform（eithersoundorword）anditsmeaning.Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.（意義和語(yǔ)音之間沒(méi)有什么邏輯的聯(lián)系；雖然是任意性的，但并非完全任意）echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities：onomatopoeicwords（擬聲詞）somecompoundwords（某些復(fù)合詞）②Productivity（能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性）Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.（Creativityoropen-endedness）★③Duality1（雙重結(jié)構(gòu)性，兩重性或二元性）Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword（doubarticulation）（語(yǔ)言是一個(gè)系統(tǒng)，包含兩組結(jié)構(gòu)或者兩個(gè)層面。在較低/基本層面存在著語(yǔ)音結(jié)構(gòu)，其自身沒(méi)有什么意義；較高層面存在著意義單位；結(jié)構(gòu)的雙重性/語(yǔ)言的雙層性）?Displacement（跨時(shí)空性，移位性）Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker（refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations）⑤Culturaltransition（文化傳遞性）Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis（everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage）,thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmittedbutinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.Theabove5propertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.Chapter2Phonology音位學(xué)Thedefinitionofphonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)）Phonetics：thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage：itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.（是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音）Articulatoryphonetics：thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.（發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）Acousticphonetics：dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheai（聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）Auditory（orperceptual）phonetics：dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.（聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）ler.Organsofspeech（發(fā)音器官）

ler.airfromthelungspassesbetweentogether,theairfromthelungsavibrationeffect.丫0仙616$$：清音airfromthelungspassesbetweentogether,theairfromthelungsavibrationeffect.Voiced(Voicing):濁音whenthevocalcords聲帶aredrawnrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingAlltheEnglishvowels元音aretypicallyvoiced(voicing).Theimportantcavities:Thepharyngealcavity咽腔Theoralcavity口腔Thenasalcavity鼻腔其他部位：Lips唇1,teeth齒2,teethridge(alveolus)齒齦3,hardpalate硬腭4,softpalate(velum)軟腭5,uvula小舌6,tipoftongue舌尖7,bladeoftongue舌面8,backoftongue舌后9,vocalcords聲帶10Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds：Broadandnarrowtranscriptions(語(yǔ)音的正字法表征：寬式/窄式標(biāo)音)IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association國(guó)際語(yǔ)音協(xié)會(huì)/國(guó)際音標(biāo))Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly(代表字母的符號(hào))Narrowtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics(變音符)[l][li：f]--aclear[l](nodiacritic)[l][bild]-adark[l](~)[l][help]--adental[l]()[p][pit]一一anaspirated[ph](h表示送氣)[p][spit]--anunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)[n][5bQtn]asyllabicnasal[n](7)ClassificationofEnglishconsonants(英語(yǔ)輔音的分類)Intermsofmannerofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音方法分(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)①Stops閉塞音：theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly[p]/[b],[t]/[d],[k]/[g]②Fricatives摩擦音：theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth[f]/[v],[s]/[z],[J]/[a],[0]/[6],[h](approximant)③Affricates塞擦音：theobstruction,completeatfirst,isreleasedslowlyasinfricatives[t/]/[d3]?Liquids流音：theairflowisobstructedbutisallowedtoescapethroughthepassagebetweenpartorpartsofthetongueandtheroofofthemouthalateralsound；[r]retroflex⑤Glides滑音：[w],[j](semi-vowels)Liquid+glides+[h]approximants⑥Nasals鼻音：thenasalpassageisopenedbyloweringthesoftpalatetoletairpassthroughit[m],[n],[n]

Byplaceofarticulation根據(jù)發(fā)音部位分(theplacewhereobstructioniscreated)①bilabial雙唇音：upperandlowerlipsarebroughttogethertocreateobstructions[p]/[b][w](velar)②labiodentals唇齒音：thelowerlipandtheupperteeth[f]/[v]③dental齒音：thetipofthetongueandtheupperfrontteeth[0]/[6]④alveolar齒齦音：thefrontpartofthetongueonthealveolarridge[t]/[d],[s]/[z],[n],[l],[r]⑤palatal腭音：tongueinthemiddleofthepalate[9]/[8],[tJ]/[da],[j]⑥velars軟腭因：thebackofthetongueagainstthevelum[k],[g],[n]⑦glottal喉音：theglottalisthespacebetweenthevocalcordsinthelarynx[h])ClassificationofEnglishvowels(英語(yǔ)元音的分類)Thehighestpositionofthetongue：front,central,back；Theopennessofthemouth：close,semi-close,semi-open,open；Theroundness(shape)ofthemonth(thelips)：Allthefront,centralvowelsareunroundedvowelsexcept[B]Allthebackvowels,except[A：]areroundedvowels{④Thelengthofthesound：longvowels&shortvowelsLarynx(tense)or(lax)Monophthongs,diphthongsCardinalvowelsThedefinitionofphonology(音位學(xué))anPhoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages；howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheypossess,howtheycbeclassified,etc.anPhonology,ontheotherhand,isinterestedinthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguages；itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.Phone,phoneme,andallophone(音素、音位、音位變體)phone:aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment(因素是一個(gè)語(yǔ)音單位或者說(shuō)語(yǔ)音段)phoneme：aphonemeisaphonologicalunit；itisaunitofdistinctivevalue,itisanabstractunit.(音位是一個(gè)音位學(xué)的單位，而且是一個(gè)有區(qū)別意義的單位，是一個(gè)抽象的單位)Allophone：thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.（在不同的語(yǔ)音環(huán)境下代表某個(gè)音位的音素被稱為該音位的音位變體）Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,minimalpair（音位對(duì)立、互補(bǔ)分布、最小對(duì)立體） 一?Phonemiccontrast:whentwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentsintwowordsandtheydistinguishmeaning,they'reinphonemiccontrast..pin&bin/p/vs./b/rope&robe/p/vs./b/ （要會(huì)判斷?。〤omplementarydistribution:twoormorethantwoallophonesofthesamephonemesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistributionbecausetheycannotappearatthesametime,oroccurindifferentenvironment,besidestheydonotdistinguishmeaning.Minimalpair:whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwosoundsaresaidtoformaminimalagroupofwordscanbedifferentiated,eachonefromtheothers,bychangingonephoneme（alwaysinthesameposition）,thenallofthesewordsconstituteaminimalsets.Somerulesinphonology①sequentialrules序列規(guī)則Phonotacticsof3consonantsoccurringinonset:如果三個(gè)輔音都出現(xiàn)在詞首，必須遵循以下三條規(guī)則：No1:/s/ 第一個(gè)音位一定是/s/voicelessstops:/p/,/t/,/k/ 第二個(gè)音位一定是/p/,/t/,/k/approximants:/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/第三個(gè)音位一定是/r/,/l/,/w/,/j/No2:Theaffricates[tJ],[da]andthesibilants[s],[z],[0],[6]arenottobefollowedbyanothersibilants.assimilationrules同化規(guī)則Co-articulationeffects:theprocessofmakingonesoundalmostatthesametimeasthenextiscalledco-articulation.<Assimilation&elisioneffects元音省略Assimilation:twophonemesoccurinsequenceandsomeaspectofonephonemeistakenorcopiedbytheother.nasalizeavowelwhenitisfollowedbyanasalsound.鼻音化現(xiàn)象deletionrule/Elision省略規(guī)則Definition:theomissionofasoundsegmentwhichwouldbepresentindeliberatepronunciationofawordinisolation.deletea[g]whenitoccursbeforeafinalnasalconsonant省略詞末鼻輔音前的瓜]音Suprasegmentalfeatures（超音段特征）①Stress重音Wordstress&sentencestressThestressoftheEnglishcompoundsalwaysonthefirstelement②Tone聲調(diào)Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationscandistinguishmeaningjustlikemorphemes.像音素一樣可以區(qū)別意義Tonelanguage,likeChinese,hasfourtones.漢語(yǔ)就是一種典型的聲調(diào)語(yǔ)言，有四個(gè)音調(diào)Level,rise,fall-rise,fall陰平陽(yáng)平上聲去聲③Intonation語(yǔ)調(diào)！ TTT1 , r Y Y r Y , Y Y Y Y Y Y ,Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.English:thefourbasictypesofintonation,orthefourtones四種語(yǔ)調(diào)Thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risingtone,andtherise-falltone降調(diào)聲調(diào)將聲調(diào)升降調(diào)Chapter3Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)ThedefinitionofmorphologyMorphology]isabranchofgrammarwhich...studies.....the.....i.n.t.e.r.n.al.....structure.…of....words.....and....t.herule_s__b.y…which…words…are一..formed：.（指對(duì)詞的內(nèi)部結(jié)構(gòu)以及構(gòu)詞規(guī)則的研究）Morpheme：詞素themostbasicelementofmeaning.（意義的最基本要素）,（Aminimalunitofmeaningorgrammaticalfunction最小的意義單位或者語(yǔ)法功能）Freemorphemes&boundmorphemes（自由詞素和黏著詞素）Freemorphemes：canstandbythemselvesassinglewordsLexicalmorphemes[&functionalmorphemes[morphemes：cannotnormallystandalone,butwhicharetypicallyattachedtoanotherformDerivationalmorphemes派生詞素affix詞綴（suffix,infix,prefix）+root后綴中綴前綴+詞根Inflectionalmorphemes曲折詞素8typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishNoun+-’s,-s[possessive所有格；plural復(fù)數(shù)]Verb+-s,-ing,-ed,-en[3rdpersonpresentsingular第三人稱單數(shù)；presentparticiple現(xiàn)在分詞；pasttense過(guò)去式，pastparticiple過(guò)去分詞]Adj+-er,-est[comparative比較級(jí)；superlative最高級(jí)]Derivationalvs.Inflectional派生（范疇/語(yǔ)類）和曲折（語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志）Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword只表示語(yǔ)法標(biāo)志（時(shí)態(tài)、數(shù)、格）Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory詞的范疇；DerivationalmorphemesareoppositeOrder：root（stem）+derivational+inflectional詞根/詞干+派生+曲折MorphologicalRules形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則（詞的構(gòu)成方式詞素是怎樣組合成為詞）；N.+lya.；A.+lyadv.；guardovergeneralizationMorphsandallomorphs語(yǔ)素和語(yǔ)素變體Morphs：theactualformsusedtorealizemorphemesAllomorphs:asetofmorphs,allofwhichareversionsofonemorpheme,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.map maps[s]dog dogs[z]watch watches[iz]mouse mice[ai]ox oxen[n]tooth teethsheep sheepEachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.Word-formationprocess（構(gòu)詞法）Coinagetheinventionoftotallynewterms（創(chuàng)造全新的詞）BorrowingthetakingoverofwordsformotherlanguagesCompoundingajoiningoftwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform（組成復(fù)合詞）BlendingtakingoverthebeginningofonewordandjoiningittotheendofotherwordClippingawordofmorethanonesyllablereducedtoashorterformBackformationaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesuffixofanexistingwordConversioncategorychange,functionalshiftAcronymsnewwordsareformedfromtheinitiallettersofasetofotherwordsDerivationthenewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords（添加詞綴）Abbreviationashortenedformofawordorphrasewhichrepresentsthecompleteform（縮短原詞））Chapter4Syntax句法學(xué)[A]ThedefinitionofsyntaxSyntax:Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences（句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)則的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支）[C]TypesofsentencesSimplesentence簡(jiǎn)單句：consistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.Coordinate（Compound）sentence并列（復(fù)合）句：containstwoclausesjoinedbyalinkingwordcalledcoordinatingconjunctions,suchas“and”,“by”,“or”…Complexsentence復(fù)雜句：containstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother

Embeddedclause子句matrixclause主句①subordinator?functionsasagrammaticalunit③maybecomplete[B]Somecategories(范疇)Syntacticcategories：refertoawordoraphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunction,suchasthesubjectorthepredicate句法范疇Lexicalcategories：(partsofspeech)詞匯范疇Majorlexicalcategories(opencategories)：N.V.Adj.Adv.Minorlexicalcategories(closedcategories)：/Det.Aux.Prep.Pron.Conj.Int.Phrasalcategories：NP,VP,PP,AP短語(yǔ)范疇[C]CombinationalrulesAresmallinnumberYieldallthepossiblesentencesRuleouttheimpossibleones①phrasestructurerules(rewriterules)(短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)NPVP(ANPVPAPPPsentenceconsistsof,orisrewritten(det.(ANPVPAPPPsentenceconsistsof,orisrewritten(det.限定詞)(Adj.)N(PP)(S)…(qual.修飾詞)V(NP)(POP)(S)…(deg.程度詞)A(PP)(S)…(deg.)PNP…as,anounphraseandaverbphrase）“”：包括/分為“（）”：內(nèi)部的成分可以省略“…”：可以選擇附加其他補(bǔ)語(yǔ)X-bartheory(X-barschema)X-bartheory(X-barschema)X'Xcompl[D]Transformationalrules轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則D-structureandS-structure深層結(jié)構(gòu)和表層結(jié)構(gòu)Deepstructure：thestructurethatcorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.Itisabstract,whichgivesthemeaningofasentenceandwhichitselfisnotpronounceable.□②X-bartheoryHeadanobligatorywordthatgiversthephraseitsnameXPorX-phraseXP(Specifier)X(complement)Formula：X”SpecX'Surfacestructure:lineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcrete,andgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.Twolevelsofsyntacticrepresentationofasentencestructure：OnethatexistsbeforemovementtakesplaceTheotherthatoccursaftermovementtakesplaceFormallinguisticexploration：D-structure：phrasestructurerules+lexiconSentenceatthelevelofD-structure

Theapplicationofsyntacticmovementrulestransformsasentencefrom1D-structureleveltoS-structurelevelTransformational-generativelineofanalysis[E]SyntacticRelationsSequential(syntagmatic)relations組合關(guān)系ThelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentenceSubstitutional(paradigmatic)relations(聚合關(guān)系)deIfthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsithesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesayth①eplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.deImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis)ICAnalysisistosimplydivideasentenceintoitsconstituentelementswithoutatfirstknowingwhattheseelementsare.Theprincipleisthatwetakeasentenceandcutitintotwoandthencutthesepartsintotwoandcontinuewiththissegmentationuntilwereachthesmallestgrammaticalunit,themorphemesLabeledICanalysissyntacticcategoriescriteriainjudgingsyntacticcategories:morphologicalfeatures(inflectionalandderivationalaffixestheytake)(number,casegenderetc.)syntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformscanoccurCategorythe determiner (Det.)TOC\o"1-5"\h\zboy noun (n.)often qualifierplays verb (v.)a Det.very degreeword(Deg)small modifierball n.must,should…auxiliary(Aux.)and,but,or…conjunction(Con.)ThehierarchicalstructureofsentenceAsentencecanbeanalyzedintoconstituents.Conversely,constituentsatdifferentlevelscancombinetoformincreasinglylargerunits.

Sentences

areanalyzedinto

clauses

…

areanalyzedinto

phrases

areanalyzedinto

words

areanalyzedintomorphemes

sentencesSentences

areanalyzedinto

clauses

…

areanalyzedinto

phrases

areanalyzedinto

words

areanalyzedintomorphemes

sentences（areusedtobuild

clausesareusedtobuild

phrasesareusedtobuild

wordsareusedtobuildmorphemesSotraditionally,sentencesareassumedtobemadeofindividualwordsinalineardirectionChapter5Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)ThedefinitionofsemanticsSemantics:thestudyofmeaningfromthelinguisticpointofview（對(duì)意義的研究）Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning關(guān)于意義研究的一些觀點(diǎn)thenamingtheory命名論theconceptualistview概念論Thought/referenceconcept思想/指稱S_，，，，………contextualism：JohnFirth語(yǔ)境論behaviorismBloomfield行為主義論basedoncontextualistviewS：stimulus r：responseJill JackS r s R（thesmalllettersr,sspeech）（thecapitalizedletterR,Spracticalevents）Senseandreference（意義和指稱）Sense：isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform,abstractandde-contextualized.（主要涉及語(yǔ)言形式的固有意義，是抽象，不與語(yǔ)境相關(guān)的）Reference:meanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld；itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience（指語(yǔ)言形式在現(xiàn)實(shí)物質(zhì)世界中的事物，是語(yǔ)言成分和非語(yǔ)言的經(jīng)驗(yàn)世界之間的關(guān)系）Movingstar Ioncewasbittenbyadog.MorningstarMindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.[d]Majorsenserelations（主要的意義關(guān)系）①synonymy同義現(xiàn)象 thesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningdialectalsynonyms方言同義詞 synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects（美式/英式英語(yǔ)）stylisticsynonyms文體同義詞synonymsdifferinginstyle（問(wèn)題、正式度不同）synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning情感或評(píng)價(jià)意義不同的同義詞（褒貶義）collocationalsynonyms搭配同義詞（詞語(yǔ)搭配、用法）semanticallydifferentsynonyms語(yǔ)義不同的同義詞（意義上稍有不同）②polysemy多義現(xiàn)象―-—onewordthathasmorethanonerelatedmeaning-③homonymy同音異義Homophones:whentwowordsareidenticalinsound同音異義發(fā)音一樣Homographs:whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling同形異義拼寫(xiě)一樣Completehomonyms:whentwowordsareidenticalbothinspellingandinSound完全同音異義詞④hyponymy下義關(guān)系 inclusiveness包含關(guān)系Thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledthesuperordinate.上坐標(biāo)詞Thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaningiscalledhyponym.Co-hyponym下坐標(biāo)詞⑤antonymy反義詞——oppositenessGradableantonyms等級(jí)反義詞（有中間詞，程度不同）Complementaryantonyms互補(bǔ)反義詞（兩個(gè)極端dead/alive，male/female）Relationalopposites:pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenitems（關(guān)系反義詞）Senserelationsbetweensentences句子之間的意義關(guān)系①XissynonymouswithY（X與Y同義）如果X真，Y真；X假，Y也假XisinconsistentwithY （X與Y不一致）如果X真，丫假；乂假，丫真XentailsY（YisanentailmentofX） （X蘊(yùn)含Y（Y是X的一個(gè)含義））如果乂真，Y一定真 （去過(guò)法國(guó)一定去過(guò)歐洲）（ 如果X假，Y有可能真（沒(méi)去過(guò)法國(guó)去/沒(méi)去過(guò)歐洲歐洲）XpresupposesY（YisaprerequisiteofX） （X預(yù)設(shè)Y（Y是X的先決條件））如果乂真，Y一定真如果乂假，￥仍然真⑤XisacontradictionX自我矛盾（總是假）XissemanticallyanomalousX語(yǔ)義反常Componentialanalysisawaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning （成分分析法分析詞匯意義的方法）Semanticfeatures語(yǔ)義特征：themeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,orsemanticfeaturesPhonemedistinctivefeatures區(qū)別特征ShowhowthosewordsarerelatedinmeaningPredicationanalysisawaytoanalyzesentencemeaningproposedbyBritishlinguistG.Leech(述謂結(jié)構(gòu)分析法分析句子意義的方法)①themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotal(ofthemeaningsofallitscomponents)②Grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning包括語(yǔ)法意義和語(yǔ)義意義Grammaticality語(yǔ)法規(guī)范性selectionalrestrictions選擇限制規(guī)貝ISemanticanalysis：Predication(basicunit)述謂結(jié)構(gòu)theabstractmeaningofthesentence句子的抽象意義Argument(s)變?cè)?名詞成分)predicate謂詞(謂語(yǔ))Logicalparticipant(s)Sthsaidaboutanargumentorstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargument(s)inasentenceThepredicatecanberegardedasthemainelement.Tomsmokes.TOM(SMOKE)one-placepredicationKidslikeapples.KID,APPLE(LIKE)two-placepredicationIt'sraining.(BERAIN)no-placepredicationChapter6Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)ThedefinitionofpragmaticsPragmatics：thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication(是研究某一語(yǔ)言的使用者如何使用句子而達(dá)到成功交際)Whatessentiallydistinguishsemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.(在意義的研究中是否考慮到了語(yǔ)境的音素)Ifitisnot,itissemantics.Ifitis,itispragmatics.Context語(yǔ)境/上下文Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.(由說(shuō)話人和聽(tīng)話人共有的知識(shí)構(gòu)成)?Sentencemeaningandutterancemeaning十句子意義和話語(yǔ)意義.Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwetreatitasasentence.如果把它當(dāng)做一個(gè)語(yǔ)法單元，認(rèn)為它是一個(gè)獨(dú)立于語(yǔ)境之外的單元，那就當(dāng)做句子Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance如果把它當(dāng)做是說(shuō)話人在特定場(chǎng)景帶著特定目的所說(shuō)的話，那就當(dāng)做話語(yǔ)Meaningofasentenceisabstract,andde-contextualized.句子的意義是抽象的，脫離語(yǔ)境的Meaningofanutteranceisconcrete,andcontextualized.話語(yǔ)的意義是具體的，依賴語(yǔ)境的Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning；itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext.話語(yǔ)的意義基于句子的意義之上，它是句子的抽象意義在交際的真實(shí)場(chǎng)景中的體現(xiàn)

SpeechActTheory（言語(yǔ)行為理