英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)的知識(shí)整理

1、實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Chapter 1 Introduction語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義 ：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.問(wèn)題 ：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematicinvestigation of lin

2、guistic data, conducted with reference to somegeneral theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but ”:to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are madeaboutthem.to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.to check the hypotheses thus formed

3、 repeatedly against the observedfacts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. ( 普通語(yǔ)言學(xué) )問(wèn)題: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of themstudy?phonetics （語(yǔ)音學(xué)） the study of soundsphonology（音位學(xué)）study howsounds are put toge

4、ther and used to conveymeaningmorphology（形態(tài)學(xué)） study the way in which symbols or morphemes arearranged and combined to form words.syntax （句法學(xué)） the study of rules of forming sentencessemantics （語(yǔ)義學(xué)） the study of meaningpragmatics （語(yǔ)用學(xué)） the context of language useSociolinguistics （社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）： The studies o

5、f all these social aspectsof language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics （語(yǔ)言心理學(xué)）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics （應(yīng)用語(yǔ)言學(xué)）： In a narrow sense it refers to theapplication of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,es

6、pecially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:prescriptive （規(guī)定性） /descriptive （描寫性）synchronic （共時(shí)）/diachronic （歷時(shí)）speech（口語(yǔ)）/writing （書面語(yǔ)）langue （語(yǔ)言）/parole （言語(yǔ)）（ the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure 精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Course in General Linguistics ）competence（

7、語(yǔ)言能力） /performance （語(yǔ)言應(yīng)用） （the American linguistN. Chomsky）traditional grammar （傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法） /modern linguistics （現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)）問(wèn)題 ：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditionalgrammar?linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.modern linguistics regards the spoken la

8、nguage as primary, not thewritten. modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-basedframework.問(wèn)題 ：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic ( 不考慮歷史演進(jìn)的 , 限于一時(shí)的 )approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic ( 探求現(xiàn)象變化的 , 歷時(shí)的) one.Be

9、cause it is believed that unless the various states of a language indifferent historical periods are successfully studied, it would bedifficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historicaldevelopment.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions oflanguage in

10、its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of thistype.問(wèn)題 ：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speechrather than to writing?Fromthe point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.The writing system of any language is always “invented ” by its user

11、sto record speech when the need arises. Even in today s world there arestill many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in termsof the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of hum

12、anspeech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised ” record of speech. And linguists datafor investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech,which they regarded as authentic.語(yǔ)言的定義：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Design features

13、of language （7 個(gè)識(shí)別特征）arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level ）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性Secondary units （底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds ）duality 雙層性Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaning ）displacement 不受時(shí)空限制性（ handle generalization and abstraction ）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Functions of

14、language ：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6 種首要因素，結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)言學(xué)家）speaker addresser emotive 感情功能addresseeconative 意動(dòng)功能context referential 所指功能messagepoetic 詩(shī)學(xué)功能contact phatic communion 交感功能codemetalinguistic 元語(yǔ)言功能Other functions:phatic function 問(wèn)候功能in

15、formative f. 信息功能 interrogative f. 詢問(wèn)功能expressive f. 表達(dá)功能 evocative f. 感染功能 directive f. 指令功能performative f. 行使（權(quán)力）功能M.A.K. Hallidayideationalinterpersonal （indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships ）textual問(wèn)題：How is Saussure s distinction between langue and parole similar toChomskys distinct

16、ion between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langueis abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete;it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案stable; it does not change freq

17、uently, while parole varies from peopleto people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by theAmerican linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal users knowledge of therules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization ofthis knowl

18、edge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance iscaused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect oflanguage for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investi

19、gation, andthat linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and makethem the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is theideal speaker s competence, not his

20、 performance, which is too haphazardto be studied.問(wèn)題：What are the main features of humanlanguage that have been specified byC. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animalcommunication system?arbitrariness 任意性 （at the syntactic level ）productivity 能產(chǎn)性，創(chuàng)造性Secondary units （底層結(jié)構(gòu) sounds

21、）duality 雙層性Primary units （上層結(jié)構(gòu) units of meaning ）displacement 不受時(shí)空限制性（ handle generalization and abstraction ）cultural transmission 文化傳遞性interchangeability 互換性convention 約定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （語(yǔ)音學(xué)）the study of the phonic medium of languagelook at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related

22、 points of view.study the sounds from the speaker s point of view articulatoryphonetics （發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)）look at the sounds from the hearer s point of viewauditory phonetics（聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）study the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves acousticphonetics （聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)）study how sounds are produced, transmitted and

23、perceived.Organs of speech:精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案three important areas The pharyngeal cavity the throat the oral cavity the mouth the nasal cavity the nose The pharyngeal cavity windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords the oral cavity tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teethridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInterna

24、tional Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）diacritics 附加符號(hào)broad transcription （寬式標(biāo)音） the transcription with letter-symbolsonlynarrow transcription （ 嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音）the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacriticsClassification of English speech soundstwo broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowel

25、s/consonantstwo ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place ofarticulationIn terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glidesIn terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottalbi

26、labi Labio-dent denta alveol palat vela glottal al l ar al r alstops VL p t kVD b d gfricati VL f s ? hvesVD v e z ?affrica VL (t ? ) t ?tesVD (d? ) d?nasals VD m n ?liquids VD l/rglides VD w jClassification of English vowels精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案criteria : （monophthongs）單元音The position of the tongue in the mou

27、th: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/laxfront central backclose i: u:i uSemi-clo e ? :se? ? :Semi-openopen ? ? ?a a:diphthongs 雙元音 / ei / / ai / au / / ? u /

28、? i / i ? / ? / u ? /Phonology 音韻學(xué)，語(yǔ)音體系Difference of phonology and phonetics: Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunicatio

29、n.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme（音位） : It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is ofdistinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound,but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certainphonetic context.精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Allophone （音

30、位變體） : The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of thatphoneme.Phonemic contrast （音位對(duì)立）Complementary distribution （音位變體的互補(bǔ)分布）Minimal pairs （最小對(duì)立體）： 含音位的單詞的全部音標(biāo)Minimal set（最小對(duì)立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Ph

31、onological Analysis （音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase,whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds: 描述音位關(guān)系Free variants: 音位的自由變體The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individualdifference or regional differences instea

32、d of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonologysequential rules: 序列規(guī)則If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must

33、 be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l / r / w /assimilation rule: 同化規(guī)則deletion rule ：省略規(guī)則Suprasegmental features 超音段特征超音段（比音位更大的語(yǔ)言單位）stress （單詞，句子層面）：the location of stress in English distinguishesmeaning.Syllable 音節(jié)：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) wit

34、h optional initialand final margins (often consonants)單音節(jié)詞多音節(jié)詞英語(yǔ)單詞都有重讀音位學(xué)中，單詞由音節(jié)構(gòu)成，音節(jié)由音位構(gòu)成。句子里讀重音的詞：Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronounstone （詞匯層面）精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案English is not a tone language Chinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the

35、fourth fallintonation （句子層面）English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone問(wèn)題：What are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one isprimary and why?Speech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic

36、evolution, speech is priorto writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented ” byits users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today s worldthere are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written.Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role th

37、an writingin terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of humanspeech while writtenlanguage is only the “revised ” record of speech. And linguists datafor investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech,which they regarded as authentic.問(wèn)題

38、：What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called“voicing ”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants inEnglish.Chapter 3 Morphology 詞法形態(tài)學(xué)1 定義和知識(shí)點(diǎn)：the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and wordstructure

39、the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms ofwords through the use of morpheme construct.it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit thathas mea

40、ning and syntactic function.four facets:精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Sounds (phonology) Constructions (syntax)Meanings (semantics)Forms of words2 詞性分類open class words: 名、動(dòng)、形、副 are the content words of a languageclosed class words: 連、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few newwords are added3 詞素有關(guān)? Morpheme: 詞素構(gòu)成單詞的最小意義單位

41、，包括聲音和意義， abstract units( 任意性)? Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 聲音? Allomorphs: 語(yǔ)素變體The variant forms of a morpheme4 分類 morphemes Free morpheme( 自由詞素): A morpheme which can be a word by itself bound morpheme(粘著詞素 ) ：A morphemethat must be attached to anotherone lexical morphemes/ derivational morph

42、emes( 派生詞素 , 包括前后綴 ):They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes( 屈折詞素 ) ： 詞類不發(fā)生變化5 單詞定義： WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by nativespeakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of

43、 a language to makesentences, whichare combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme( 詞位). A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 單詞結(jié)構(gòu)： StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the majorcomponent of it

44、s meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional andderivational morphemes can be added.Base: 詞基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements tomodify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don t精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案

45、belong to a lexical category.7 單詞合成： Word formationmorphological rules productive morphological rulesderivationcompounds幾點(diǎn)注意：Whenthe two words are in the samegrammatical category, the compoundwillbe like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n

46、.（不總是這樣）The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of itsparts.8 單詞合成過(guò)程：compoundingaffixation or derivationBlends 混合詞Abbreviation 縮略語(yǔ)shortening acronyms 按音節(jié)拼讀首字母的單詞Initials 按字母拼讀的單詞Clippings 縮寫詞backformation 逆構(gòu)詞法9 要點(diǎn)Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as

47、grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in,and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally knownas functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定義It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern t

48、heformation of sentences.2 四大派別traditional syntax 傳統(tǒng)學(xué)派structural syntax 結(jié)構(gòu)主義學(xué)派（索緒爾）transformational syntax 生成學(xué)派（喬姆斯基）（本書重點(diǎn)學(xué)習(xí)）functional syntax 功能學(xué)派（哈里德）3 范疇 Categories精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案Noun (N) Verb (V)Major lexical categoriesAdjective (A)Preposition (P)Word-level categoriesDeterminer (Det) 限定詞/ 成分Degree wo

49、rds (Deg) 程度詞Minor lexical categories Qualifier (Qual) 修飾語(yǔ)Auxiliary (Aux) 助詞Conjunction (Con) 連詞Syntactic categories 句法范疇的定義：The fact that words in all humanlanguages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.注：The word-level categories are the most central categories to thesy

50、ntactic study.Major lexical categories ( 主要詞匯范疇 ) play a very important role insentence formation and they are often assumedto be the heads around whichphrases are built.Minor lexical categories ( 次要詞匯范疇 )Meaning 意義Three criteria to determine a word s category inflection 屈折變化Distribution 分布? It is m

51、isleading to assume that a words category can be toldstraightforward from its meaning:nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to differentword categories.Phrases are syntacti

52、c units that are built around a certain word category.The phrase is built around the word category.精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要點(diǎn)生成學(xué)派認(rèn)為句子由短語(yǔ)構(gòu)成。短語(yǔ)單詞詞素音節(jié)短語(yǔ)層面任何短語(yǔ)都有 2 個(gè)層面單詞層面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phras

53、eAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:head/termed head 中心語(yǔ)/ 中心成分 : The word around which a phrase isformedspecifiers 標(biāo)志語(yǔ)/ 標(biāo)志成分： The words on the left side of the headscomplements 補(bǔ)語(yǔ)/ 補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)/ 補(bǔ)足成分： The words on the right side of theh

54、eads7 phrase structure rule 短語(yǔ)結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則定 義 ：A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP(Det) N (PP) VP(Qual) V (NP) AP(Deg) A (PP) PP(Deg) P (NP) XP rule公式一： XP (specifier) X (complement)X Theory

55、（X 標(biāo)桿理論）X : The intermediate level formed by the head and the complementbetween word level and phrase level.X Theory: (specifier) X (word)精彩文檔實(shí)用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)文案X =X (complement)Coordination rule ( 并列規(guī)則)Coordinate structures ( 并列結(jié)構(gòu) )Coordination ( 并列，并列關(guān)系 )Four important properties of coordination ：there is no l

56、imit on the numberof coordinated categories that can appearprior to the conjunction.a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.coordinated categories must be of the same type.the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.公式二：