直流發(fā)電機(jī)、變壓器英文

A1.1原文DCGENENRATORS1.INTRODUCTIONForallpracticalpurposes,thedirect-currentgeneratorisonlyusedforspecialapplicationsandlocaldcpowergeneration.Thislimitationisduetothecommutatorrequiredtorectifytheinternalgeneratedacvoltage,therebymakinglargescaledcpowergeneratorsnotfeasible.Consequently,allelectricalenergyproducedcommerciallyisgeneratedanddistributedintheformofthree-phaseacpower.Theuseofsolidstateconvertersnowadaysmakesconversiontodceconomical.However,theoperatingcharacteristicsofdcgeneratorsarestillimportant,becausemostconceptscanbeappliedtoallothermachines.2.FIELDWINDINGCONNECTIONSThegeneralarrangementofbrushesandfieldwindingforafour-polemachineisasshowninFig.1.Thefourbrushesrideonthecommutator.ThepositivebrusherareconnectedtoterminalA1whilethenegativebrushesareconnectedtoterminalA2ofthemachine.Asindicatedinthesketch,thebrushesarepositionedapproximatelymidwayunderthepoles.TheymakecontactwithcoilsthathavelittleornoEMFinducedinthem,sincetheirsidesaresituatedbetweenpoles.Figure1Sketchoffour-poledcmatchineThefourexcitationorfieldpolesareusuallyjoinedinseriesandtheirendsbroughtouttoterminalsmarkedF1andF2.Theyareconnectedsuchthattheyproducenorthandsouthpolesalternately.Thetypeofdcgeneratorischaracterizedbythemannerinwhichthefieldexcitationisprovided.Ingeneral,themethodemployedtoconnectthefieldandarmaturewindingsfallsintothefollowinggroups(seeFig.2):Figure2Fieldconnectionsfordcgenerators:(a)separatelyexcitedgenerator;(b)self-excited,shuntgenerator;(c)seriesgenerator;(d)compoundgenerator;short-shuntconnection;(e)compoundgenerator,long-shuntconnection.Theshuntfieldcontainsmanyturnsofrelativelyfinewireandcarriesacomparativelysmallcurrent,onlyafewpercentofratedcurrent.Theseriesfieldwinding,ontheotherhand,hasfewturnsofheavywiresinceitisinserieswiththearmatureandthereforecarriestheloadcurrent.Beforediscussingthedcgeneratorterminalcharacteristics,letusexaminetherelationshipbetweenthegeneratedvoltageandexcitationcurrentofageneratoronnoload.ThegeneratedEMFisproportionaltoboththefluxperpoleandthespeedatwhichthegeneratorisdriven,EG=kn.ByholdingthespeedconstantitcanbeshowntheEGdependsdirectlyontheflux.Totestthisdependencyonactualgeneratorsisnotverypractical,asitinvolvesamagneticfluxmeasurement.Thefluxisproducedbytheampere-turnsofthefieldcoils:inturn,thefluxmustdependontheamountoffieldcurrentflowingsincethenumberofturnsonthefieldwindingisconstant.Thisrelationshipisnotlinearbecauseofmagneticsaturationafterthefieldcurrentreachesacertainvalue.ThevariationofEGversusthefieldcurrentIfmaybeshownbyacurveknownasthemagnetizationcurveoropen-circuitcharacteristic.Forthisagivengeneratorisdrivenataconstantspeed,isnotdeliveringloadcurrent,andhasitsfieldwindingseparatelyexcited.ThevalueofEGappearingatthemachineterminalsismeasuredasIfisprogressivelyincreasedfromzerotoavaluewellaboveratedvoltageofthatmachine.TheresultingcurveisshownisFig.3.WhenIj=0,thatis,withthefieldcircuitopencircuited,asmallvoltageEtismeasured,duetoresidualmagnetism.Asthefieldcurrentincreases,thegeneratedEMFincreaseslinearlyuptothekneeofthemagnetizationcurve.Beyondthispoint,increasingthefieldcurrentstillfurthercausessaturationofthemagneticstructuretosetin.Figure3Magnetizationcurveoropen-circuitcharacteristicofaseparatelyexciteddcmachineThemeansthatalargerincreaseinfieldcurrentisrequiredtoproduceagivenincreaseinvoltage.SincethegeneratedvoltageEGisalsodirectlyproportionaltothespeed,amagnetizationcurvecanbedrawnforanyotherspeedoncethecurveisdetermined.Thismerelyrequiresanadjustmentofallpointsonthecurveaccordingtowherethequantitiesvaluesatthevariousspeeds.3.VOLTAGEREGULATIONLetusnextconsideraddingaloadongenerator.Theterminalvoltagewillthendecrease(becausethearmaturewindingharesistance)unlesssomeprovisionismadetokeepitconstant.Acurvethatshowsthevalueofterminalvoltageforvariousloadcurrentsiscalledtheloadorcharacteristicofthegenerator.Fig.4showstheexternalcharacteristicofaseparatelyexcitedgenerator.ThedecreaseintheterminalvoltageisduemainlytothearmaturecircuitresistanceRA.Ingeneral,whereVtistheterminalvoltageandIAisthearmaturecurrent(orloadcurrentIL)suppliedbythegeneratortotheload.Anotherfactorthatcontributestothedecreaseinterminalvoltageisthedecreaseinfluxduetoarmaturereaction.ThearmaturecurrentestablishedanMMFthatdistortsthemainflux,resultinginaweakenedflux,especiallyinnoninterpolemachines.Thiseffectiscalledarmaturereaction.AsFig.4shows,theterminalvoltageversusloadcurrentcurvedoesnotdropofflinearlysincetheironbehavesnonlinear.Becausearmaturereactiondependsonthearmaturecurrentitgivesthecurveitsdroopingcharacteristic.4.SHUNTORSELF-EXCIITEDGENRATORSAshuntgeneratorhasitsshuntfieldwindingconnectedinparallelwiththearmaturesothatthemachineprovidesitsownexcitation,asindicatedinFig.5.Thequestionariseswhetherthemachinewillgenerateavoltageandwhatdeterminesthevoltage.Forvoltageto“buildup”asitiscalled,theremustbesomeremanentmagnetisminthefieldpoles.Ordinarily,ifthegeneratorhasbeenusedpreviously,therewillbesomeremanentmagnetism.WehaveseeninSection3thatifthefieldwouldbedisconnected,therewillbesmallvoltageEfgeneratedduetothisremanentmagnetism,providedthatthegeneratorisdrivenatsomespeed.Connectingthefieldforself-excitation,thissmallvoltagewillbeappliedtotheshuntsfieldanddriveasmallcurrentthroughthefieldcircuit.Ifthisresultingsmallcurrentintheshuntfieldisofsuchadirectionthatitweakenstheresidualflux,thevoltageremainsnearzeroandtheterminalvoltagedoesnotbuildup.Inthissituationtheweakmainpolefluxopposestheresidualflux.Figure5Shuntgenerator:(a)circuit;(b)loadcharacteristicIftheconnectionissuchthattheweakmainpolefluxaidstheresidualflux,theinducedvoltageincreasesrapidlytoalarge,constantvalue.Thebuild-upprocessisreadilyseentobecumulanve.Thatis,morevoltageincreasesthefieldcurrent,whichinturnincreasesthevoltage,andsoon.Thefactthatthisprocessterminatesatafinitevoltageisduetothenonlinearbehaviorofthemagncticcircuit.InsteadystatethegeneratedvoltageiscausesafieldcurrenttoflowthatisjustsufficienttodevelopafluxrequiredforthegeneratedEMFthatcausesthefieldcurrenttoflow.Thecircuitcarriesonlydccurrent,sothatthefieldcurrentdependsonlyonthefieldcircuitresistance,Rf.ThismayconsistofthefieldcircuitresistanceRf,thefieldcurrentdependsonthegeneratedvoltageinaccordancewithOhm’slaw.Itshouldbeevidentthatonanewmachineoronethathaslostitsresidualfluxbecauseofalongidleperiod,somemagnetismmustbecreated.Thisisusuallydonebyconnectingthefieldwindingonlytoaseparatedcsourceforafewseconds.Thisprocedureisgenerallyknownasflashingthefield.SeriesGeneratorsAsmentionedpreviously,thefieldwindingofaseriesgeneratorisinserieswiththearmature.Sinceitcarriestheloadcurrenttheseriesfieldwindingconsistsofonlyafewturnsofthickwire.Atnoload,thegeneratedvoltageissmallduetoresidualfieldfluxonly.Whenaloadisadded,thefluxincreases,andsodoesthegeneratedvoltage.Fig.7showstheloadcharacteristicofaseriesgeneratordrivenatacertainspeed.ThedashedlineindicatesthegeneratedEMFofthesamemachinewiththearmatureopen-circuitedandthefieldseparatelyexcited.ThedifferencebetweenthetwocurvesissimplytheIRdropintheseriesfieldandarmaturewinding,suchthatwhereRSistheseriesfieldwindingresistance.Figure7Seriesgenerator:(a)circuitdiagram;(b)loadcharacteristicsCompoundGeneratorsThecompoundgeneratorhasbothashuntandaseriesfieldwinding,thelatterwindingwoundontopoftheshuntwinding.Fig.8showsthecircuitdiagram.Thetwowindingsareusuallyconnectedsuchthattheirampere-turnsactinthesamedirection.Assuchthegeneratorissaidtobecumulativelycompounded.TheshuntconnectionillustratedinFig.8iscalledalongshuntconnection.Iftheshuntfieldwindingisdirectlyconnectedacrossthearmatureterminals,theconnectionisreferredtoasashortshunt.Inpracticetheconnectionusedisoflittleconsequence,sincetheshuntfieldwindingcarriesasmallcurrentcomparedtothefull-loadcurrent.Furthermore,thenumberofturnsontheseriesfieldwinding.Thisimpliesithasalowresistancevalueandthecorrespondingvoltagedropacrossitatfullloadisminimal.CurvesinFig.9representstheterminalcharacteristicoftheshuntfieldwindingalone.Bytheadditionofasmallseriesfieldwindingthedropinterminalvoltagewithincreasedloadingisreducedasindicated.Suchageneratorissaidtobeundercompounded.Byincreasingthenumberofseriesturns,theno-loadandfull-loadterminalvoltagecanbemadeequal;thegeneratoristhensaidtobeflatcompounded.Ifthenumberofseriesturnsismorethannecessarytocompensateforthevoltagedrop,thegeneratorisovercomepounded.Inthatcasethefull-loadvoltageishigherthantheno-loadvoltage.Figure9TerminalcharacteristicsofcompoundgeneratorscomparedwiththatoftheshuntgeneratorTheovercompoundedgeneratormaybeusedininstanceswheretheloadisatsomedistancefromthegenerator.Thevoltagedropsinthefeederlinesarethecompensatedforwithincreasedloading.Reversingthepolarityoftheseriesfieldinrelationtotheshuntfield,thefieldswillopposeeachothermoreandmoreastheloadcurrentincrease.Suchageneratorissaidtobedifferentiallycompounded.Itisusedinapplicationswherefeederlinescouldoccurapproachingthoseofashortcircuit.Anexamplewouldbewherefeederlinescouldbreakandshortcircuitthegenerator.Theshort-circuitcurrent,however,isthenlimitedtoa“safe”value.TheterminalcharacteristicforthistypeofgeneratorisalsoshowninFig.9.Compoundgeneratorsareusedmoreextensivelythantheothertypesbecausetheymaybedesignedtohaveawidevarityofterminalcharacteristics.Asillustrated,thefull-loadterminalvoltagecanbemaintainedattheno-loadvaluebytheproperdegreeofcompounding.Othermethodsofvoltagecontrolaretheuseofrheostats,forinstance,inthefieldcircuit.However,withchangingloadsitrequiresaconstantadjustmentofthefieldrheostattomaintainthevoltage.Amoreusefularrangement,whichisnowcommonpractice,istouseanautomaticvoltageregulatorwiththegenerator.Inessence,thevoltageregulatorisafeedbackcontrolsystem.Thegeneratoroutputvoltageissensedandcomparedtoafixedreferencevoltagedeviationfromthereferencevoltagegivesanerrorsignalthatisfedtoapoweramplifier.Thepoweramplifiersuppliesthefieldexcitationcurrent.Iftheerrorsignalispositive,forexample,theoutputvoltageislargerthandesiredandtheamplifierwillreduceitscurrentdrive.Indoingsotheerrorsignalwillbereducedtozero.A1.2原文TRANSFORMER1.INTRODUCTIONThehigh-voltagetransmissionwasneedforthecaseelectricalpoweristobeprovidedatconsiderabledistancefromageneratingstation.Atsomepointthishighvoltagemustbereduced,becauseultimatelyismustsupplyaload.Thetransformermakesitpossibleforvariouspartsofapowersystemtooperateatdifferentvoltagelevels.Inthispaperwediscusspowertransformerprinciplesandapplications.2.TOW-WINDINGTRANSFORMERSAtransformerinitssimplestformconsistsoftwostationarycoilscoupledbyamutualmagneticflux.Thecoilsaresaidtobemutuallycoupledbecausetheylinkacommonflux.Inpowerapplications,laminatedsteelcoretransformers(towhichthispaperisrestricted)areused.Transformersareefficientbecausetherotationallossesnormallyassociatedwithrotatingmachineareabsent,sorelativelylittlepowerislostwhentransformingpowerfromonevoltageleveltoanother.Typicalefficienciesareintherange92to99%,thehighervaluesapplyingtothelargerpowertransformers.Thecurrentflowinginthecoilconnectedtotheacsourceiscalledtheprimarywindingorsimplytheprimary.Itsetsupthefluxφinthecore,whichvariesperiodicallybothinmagnitudeanddirection.Thefluxlinksthesecondcoil,calledthesecondarywindingorsimplysecondary.Thefluxischanging;therefore,itinducesavoltageinthesecondarybyelectromagneticinductioninaccordancewithLenz’slaw.Thustheprimaryreceivesitspowerfromthesourcewhilethesecondarysuppliesthispowertotheload.Thisactionisknownastransformeraction.3.TRANSFORMERPRINCIPLESWhenasinusoidalvoltageVpisappliedtotheprimarywiththesecondaryopen-circuited,therewillbenoenergytransfer.TheimpressedvoltagecausesasmallcurrentIθtoflowintheprimarywinding.Thisno-loadcurrenthastwofunctions:(1)itproducesthemagneticfluxinthecore,whichvariessinusoidallybetweenzeroandφm,whereφmisthemaximumvalueofthecoreflux;and(2)itprovidesacomponenttoaccountforthehysteresisandeddycurrentlossesinthecore.Therecombinedlossesarenormallyreferredtoasthecorelosses.Theno-loadcurrentIθisusuallyfewpercentoftheratedfull-loadcurrentofthetransformer(about2to5%).Sinceatno-loadtheprimarywindingactsasalargereactanceduetotheironcore,theno-loadcurrentwilllagtheprimaryvoltagebynearly90o.ItisreadilyseenthatthecurrentcomponentIm=I0sinθ0,calledthemagnetizingcurrent,is90oinphasebehindtheprimaryvoltageVP.Itisthiscomponentthatsetsupthefluxinthecore;φisthereforeinphasewithIm.Thesecondcomponent,Ie=I0sinθ0,isinphasewiththeprimaryvoltage.Itisthecurrentcomponentthatsuppliesthecorelosses.Thephasorsumofthesetwocomponentsrepresentstheno-loadcurrent,orI0=Im+IeItshouldbenotedthattheno-loadcurrentisdistortesandnonsinusoidal.Thisistheresultofthenonlinearbehaviorofthecorematerial.Ifitisassumedthattherearenootherlossesinthetransformer,theinducedvoltageIntheprimary,Epandthatinthesecondary,Escanbeshown.Sincethemagneticfluxsetupbytheprimarywinding，therewillbeaninducedEMFEinthesecondarywindinginaccordancewithFaraday’slaw,namely,E=NΔφ/Δt.Thissamefluxalsolinkstheprimaryitself,inducinginitanEMF,Ep.Asdiscussedearlier,theinducedvoltagemustlagthefluxby90o,therefore,theyare180ooutofphasewiththeappliedvoltage.Sincenocurrentflowsinthesecondarywinding,Es=Vs.Theno-loadprimarycurrentI0issmall,afewpercentoffull-loadcurrent.ThusthevoltageintheprimaryissmallandVpisnearlyequaltoEp.Theprimaryvoltageandtheresultingfluxaresinusoidal;thustheinducedquantitiesEpandEsvaryasasinefunction.TheaveragevalueoftheinducedvoltagegivenbyEavg=turns×whichisFaraday’slawappliedtoafinitetimeinterval.ItfollowsthatEavg=N=4fNφmwhichNisthenumberofturnsonthewinding.Formaccircuittheory,theeffectiveorroot-mean-square(rms)voltageforasinewaveis1.11timestheaveragevoltage;thusE=4.44fNφmSincethesamefluxlinkswiththeprimaryandsecondarywindings,thevoltageperturnineachwindingisthesame.HenceEp=4.44fNpφmandEs=4.44fNsφmwhereEpandEsarethenumberofturnontheprimaryandsecondarywindings,respectively.Theratioofprimarytosecondaryinducedvoltageiscalledthetransformationratio.Denotingthisratiobya,itisseenthata==Assumethattheoutputpowerofatransformerequalsitsinputpower,notabadsumptioninpracticeconsideringthehighefficiencies.Whatwereallyaresayingisthatwearedealingwithanidealtransformer;thatis,ithasnolosses.ThusPm=PoutorVpIp×primaryPF=VsIs×secondaryPFwherePFisthepowerfactor.Fortheabove-statedassumptionitmeansthatthepowerfactoronprimaryandsecondarysidesareequal;thereforeVpIp=VsIsfromwhichisobtained=≌≌aItshowsthatasanapproximationtheterminalvoltageratioequalstheturnsratio.Theprimaryandsecondarycurrent,ontheotherhand,areinverselyrelatedtotheturnsratio.Theturnsratiogivesameasureofhowmuchthesecondaryvoltageisraisedorlower